Cause and Effect Essay of diabetes Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Cause and Effect of diabetes - Essay Example ts in insulin secretion, insulin action or both, which translates to long term damage and dysfunction of various organs of the body (Nayak and Roberts). Within the pancreas, the Islets of Langerhans are responsible for secretion of insulin, which acts to regulate of blood glucose levels. In persons with diabetes, normal insulin function is impaired where it can be produced in insufficient quantities or is produced defectively. This further classifies diabetes mellitus into Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes. Type 1 diabetes accounts for about 3-5% of all diabetes in the world and is more common in children and young adults but can occur at any age (International Diabetes Federation 6). Type 1 diabetes presents as an autoimmune disease where insulin producing cells within the pancreas are destroyed, and the patients are always dependent on insulin injections for survival. The destruction of Islets of Langerhans within the pancreas impair the ability to produce insulin adequately thus affecting the process of glucose regulation negatively. Such destruction may be facilitated by the presence of external factors such as viral infections, which may alter the orientation of the host immune system. On the hand, Type 2 diabetes accounts for about 90% of all diabetes cases globally, occurring among the middle-aged and older people. In this condition, the body either does not make enough insulin or does not respond well as it ought to the insulin produced and can be controlled by keeping blood glucose levels within the range through diet and exercises. In this regard, Type 2 diabetes is caused by insulin resistance, which implies that the body cannot effectively utilize the insulin produced no matter its quantity. As a result, glucose cannot be transported from the blood to the cells, which encourages excess blood glucose, which makes it difficult for the body to maintain normal glucose levels in the blood. Obesity, which is associated with insulin resistance, has been described

History of Security in the United States Essay Example for Free

History of Security in the United States Essay Abstract Security in America has evolved from the time of the first settlers to today’s well-trained forces. Factors leading to the significant growth of private security from pre-Civil War to post World War II consisted of a lack of public police and large monetary loss by private industry. Today, security is global and faces challenges and changes, with increases in terrorism and technology crimes. It must maintain a high level of professionalism and maintain technological innovation remain a respected industry. History of Security in the United States Nineteenth Century The nineteenth century saw the private security industry fill in many of the gaps left by public law enforcement in both manpower and ingenuity. The development of public police forces was slow in the infancy of the United States. In the latter half of the 1800’s, police departments were fragmented, decentralized and often corrupt, creating a need for private security. The American frontier saw an extreme shortage of law enforcement, as they had to resort to deputizing civilians and forming posses. Citizens often had to resort to vigilante justice due to a lack of law enforcement. In 1850, Henry Wells and William Fargo established American Express and Wells Fargo cargo companies and in 1851 Allen Pinkerton established the first national private security and investigations service (Ortmeirer, 2009, pg. 10). Pinkerton provided security and investigative service to the railroad, offered private detective services and was actually the intelligence arm of the Union Army during the first half of the Civil War. In 1853 August Perry patented the first burglar alarm followed by Edwin Holmes in 1858, who produced the first central station burglar alarm. That same year, Washington Perry Brinks introduced the armored carriage for the transportation of valuables and money (Ortmeirer, 2009, pg. 10). Twentieth Century The quelling of labor unrest brought about a poor reputation to private security leading up to the Great Depression. Decades earlier, industries such as manufacturing, transportation and mining turned to agencies like Pinkerton for not only asset protection, but also to combat labor violence and break strikes. There were numerous violent incidents involving strikes resulting in civilian injury, deaths and job losses. One incident in particular was the Homestead Strike of 1892 in Pennsylvania, which culminated in a gun battle between Pinkerton agents and the strikers (Lipson, 1988). Incidents such as this eventually led to private security being viewed as ‘Knights of Capitalism’ by the public. Security companies were banned from carrying weapons and crossing state lines to break strikes in some states (Joh, 2006). There was a decline in the employment of private security during the Great Depression. According to The HUB, â€Å"There seems to be some controversy as to whe n the first proprietary security forces arose, but many sources attribute Henry Ford as the man who refined ‘in house’ security to factory work. As the automobile gained popularity so the industries providing the necessary materials for the factories producing them across the nation needed and utilized private security personnel. With the high unemployment and possibility of crime due to the Great Depression, private security further embedded itself within industry† (Hub pages, http://dyonder.hubpages.com/hub/The-History-of-Private-Security). There was an expansion of private security leading up to and during World War II due to infrastructure, military and industrial security concerns. Post World War II saw an increase in the professionalism of private security, as returning veterans with military police experience began to seek employment in the security industry. Anti-espionage procedures established by the government during World War II carried over into the Cold War era, with the government insisting on a quality security force and plans, to protect defense contractors and government assets. The private security industry followed the government’s lead, thus entering the era of the security manager (Hub pages, http://dyonder.hubpages.com/hub/The-History-of-Private-Security). The security industry increased in size in the mid twentieth century, as did the crime rate and police were unable to protect private property. Many organizations realized the value of protecting their personnel and property during this time. In 1955, the American Society for Industrial Security (ASIS) was formed and today is the world’s largest organization of security professionals. ASIS continues to formulate security policy and direct security programs in a vast number of businesses, industries and government operations (Ortmeirer, 2009, pg. 11-12). In 1970, private security continued to grow and matched the number of police personnel at 500,000. In 1976, the Task Force Report on Private Security was published and it was addressed for the first time that private security was an essential element to public safety. The Task Force recommended that the private sector be encouraged to nurture and improve the quality of security services and work with law enforcement to fight crime. This created an environment that saw the security industry continue to grow due to concerns over increased crime and limited law enforcement resources. By 1991, the number of security personnel had nearly tripled that of law enforcement and by the year 2000, private security personnel numbers rose to two million, clearly showing private security is the primary protective service (Ortmeirer, 2009, pg. 6-7, 13). Future The private security industry has made giant steps since the nineteenth century. It is clear from history that the private security industry must continue to complement the public police forces by providing innovative and needed support to industry and government. It must maintain and constantly improve upon its procedures and training, to keep the respect of the public, which it currently commands. It must above all remain one step ahead in today’s technological world, as M. Lipson (1988) stated, â€Å"The history of the ancient craft of private security may be illustrative of opportunities for those of the industry with foresight† (Lipson, 1988). It is crucial private security continue with its current expertise in antiterrorism and computer security operations. It is also imperative private security continue to foster the close, post-911relationships that were developed with law enforcement, from federal to state to local police agencies, to successfully move into th e future. References Joh, E.E. (2006). The Forgotten Threat: Private Policing and the State. Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies, 13(2), 364. Lipson, M. (1988). Private Security: A Retrospective. Annals Of The American Academy Of Political Social Science, 49811-22. Ortmeirer, P.J. (2009). Introduction to Security. Prentice Hall. The Hub (2009). (Hub pages, http://dyonder.hubpages.com/hub/The-History-of-PrivateSecurity).

Gold :: essays research papers fc

Gold, nothing can compare to this precious metal. A symbol of wealth and prosperity, it has been a value for explorers and adventurers and a lure for conquerors. Today it is vital to commerce and finance; popular in ornamentation, and increasing importance in technology.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The nature of gold is diverse. The chemical element gold is a heavy, soft metal. It weighs nearly twice as much as lead. Shiny and deep yellow in color, gold is one of two metals, which are not gray or white when pure. Gold is the most ductile of metals. Properties of gold are: ? Symbol - Au ? Atomic Number – 79 ? Atomic Weight – 196.967 ? Electron Configuration - -32-18-1 ? Group in Periodic Table – 1B ? Density at 68 F – 19.3 g/cm^3 ? Boiling Point – 5,370.8 F ? Melting Point – 1,945.4 F ? Number of Protons/Electrons – 79 ? Number of Neutrons – 118 ? Classification – Transition Metal ? Crystal Structure – Cubic Facts: ? Date of Discovery – Circa 3000 BC ? Discover – Unknown ? Name of Origin – From the Old English word geolo (yellow) ? Symbol Origin – From the Latin word aurum (gold) ? Uses – electronics, jewelry, coins ? Obtained From – crust of the earth, copper ores Atomic and Chemical Properties: In it’s usual state – atomic mass number 197 – gold is stable. However, there are radioactive (unstable) isotopes of mass number 186 to 196 and 198 to 203. Gold normally exhibits a chemical valence of one or three.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Gold is the “noblest'; of the noble metals (gold, platinum, palladium, and rhodium), so termed because of their inertness, or reluctance to enter into chemical reactions. Gold will not react with common acids but is attacked by a three-to-one mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids. This combination is called aqua regia because it reacts with the so-called royal metal. Gold will not combine directly with oxygen, but oxides may be formed indirectly. Gold will also combine with the halogens (fluorine, chlorine bromine, and iodine) and with the cyanides.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The purity of gold is expressed in Karats (KT), on a scale of 24, or in fineness, on a scale of 1,000. Pure gold is 24 Karat or 1,000 fine. An alloy containing 75 percent gold would be described as 18- Karat gold or 750 fine. History:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  (Sanskrit Jval; Anglo – Saxon gold; L. aurum, gold) Known and highly valued from earliest times, gold is found in nature as the free metal and in tellurides; it is very widely distributed and is almost always associated with quarts or pyrite.

Vittorio de Sicas The Bicycle Thief Essay -- Movies Film Bicycle Thie

Vittorio de Sica's The Bicycle Thief Since the beginning of its existence as a country, Italy has faced enormous challenges in establishing itself as a unified political and social entity. The geographic, economic, and linguistic differences between its various regions and the artificial manner in which they were amalgamated created a legacy of internal divisions that continues to dominate the country's political climate to this day. Italy's numerous historical fiascoes, such as its disastrous involvement in the two World Wars and the rise of fascism, further escalated the domestic problems that had haunted it since the Risorgimento. At first, the anti-fascist Resistance movement, which dominated the end of World War II, seemed to bring Italy a ray of hope, promising a new era of freedom, reform, and democratic representation. However, this hope was quickly extinguished, as widespread poverty, government corruption, and deep divisions between regions and classes persisted and no true social reform was attained. These ha rsh conditions were depicted by a group of Italian film directors whose neorealist works have since been celebrated as masterpieces of world cinema. One of the most prominent of these is Vittorio De Sica's The Bicycle Thief. This 1948 film discusses the prevalent themes dominating Italy's social and political history, within the context of the unsettlingly poor post-War urban proletariat. Among the most prominent motifs in Italian politics since the Risorgimento has been a tendency for quasi-action (inaction disguised as action), in the form of transformismo and attendismo. The first of these terms refers to the practice of "assuring the government of an adequate majority in parliament either by a prelimina... ...ial failure. This somber conclusion of the film seems to be an expression of hopelessness for Italy's future. By 1948, the country had gone through a series of tumultuous historical events, caused by the inadequacy of its political and economic system. The disillusionment of its citizens with the system and in fact with the very concept of their nation was taken to its limits by yet another failure to achieve true social change after World War II. The transformismo of the Christian Democrats and the attendismo of the Communists offered no hope for Italians, appearing as just another stage in the country's endless cycle of political and social failure. The Bicycle Thief is a portrait of Italy's collective consciousness, haunted by its disturbing past and disillusioned towards its future. Works Cited; URL:http://www.film.queensu.ca/Critical/Bonikowski.html Vittorio de Sica's The Bicycle Thief Essay -- Movies Film Bicycle Thie Vittorio de Sica's The Bicycle Thief Since the beginning of its existence as a country, Italy has faced enormous challenges in establishing itself as a unified political and social entity. The geographic, economic, and linguistic differences between its various regions and the artificial manner in which they were amalgamated created a legacy of internal divisions that continues to dominate the country's political climate to this day. Italy's numerous historical fiascoes, such as its disastrous involvement in the two World Wars and the rise of fascism, further escalated the domestic problems that had haunted it since the Risorgimento. At first, the anti-fascist Resistance movement, which dominated the end of World War II, seemed to bring Italy a ray of hope, promising a new era of freedom, reform, and democratic representation. However, this hope was quickly extinguished, as widespread poverty, government corruption, and deep divisions between regions and classes persisted and no true social reform was attained. These ha rsh conditions were depicted by a group of Italian film directors whose neorealist works have since been celebrated as masterpieces of world cinema. One of the most prominent of these is Vittorio De Sica's The Bicycle Thief. This 1948 film discusses the prevalent themes dominating Italy's social and political history, within the context of the unsettlingly poor post-War urban proletariat. Among the most prominent motifs in Italian politics since the Risorgimento has been a tendency for quasi-action (inaction disguised as action), in the form of transformismo and attendismo. The first of these terms refers to the practice of "assuring the government of an adequate majority in parliament either by a prelimina... ...ial failure. This somber conclusion of the film seems to be an expression of hopelessness for Italy's future. By 1948, the country had gone through a series of tumultuous historical events, caused by the inadequacy of its political and economic system. The disillusionment of its citizens with the system and in fact with the very concept of their nation was taken to its limits by yet another failure to achieve true social change after World War II. The transformismo of the Christian Democrats and the attendismo of the Communists offered no hope for Italians, appearing as just another stage in the country's endless cycle of political and social failure. The Bicycle Thief is a portrait of Italy's collective consciousness, haunted by its disturbing past and disillusioned towards its future. Works Cited; URL:http://www.film.queensu.ca/Critical/Bonikowski.html

The Key to Happiness

The key to Happiness Is the glass half empty, or is it half full? A true optimist would say that the glass is half full. That is because an optimist will always lean towards the more positive option. Optimism is defined as â€Å" the inclination to look at the bright side of any situation, and expect the best possible outcome from any series of events. Anyone can be optimistic, some people choose optimism as a way of life, it can reduce stress producing a better quality of life, and if used on a regular basis optimism can be the key to happiness.Anyone at all can practice optimism. To be an optimist all one has to do is choose to see the positive side of a situation. Its like the saying, â€Å"Count your blessings. † A person may feel that they have nothing to be positive about, but when they are reminded of the positive things in their lives they tend to forget about the negative. Optimism can be developed when one has realistic goals and expectations. Optimists don’t fall into a trap of feeling hopeless, instead they strive for growth and positive change. Being optimistic is not about pretending that everything is okay.It is about thinking positively when things go wrong, learning from them, and moving forward. Optimism can be incorporated into any activity that takes place on any given day and if used on a regular basis, people will see a positive change in their lives. Optimism can produce a better quality of life. Anxiety and negative emotions can take its toll on the body, it can affect your cardiovascular and your immune system. Having an optimistic attitude can protect against these effects. Research has shown the people who choose to have an optimistic attitude about their future behave differently.Optimists have been known to exercise more, smoke less and eat healthier. When they fall ill, optimists are more likely to participate actively in their treatment. Some would say, â€Å"A healthy mind, means a healthy body. † Optimists are better able to handle difficult situations with the ups and downs of daily living. Optimists tend to be more creative and harder workers. They are not afraid of there pasts or their futures. They understand that not everything can be changed, they accept that and move on. Optimism is the key to happiness. It helps us appreciate everything we have in life.It is within appreciation that we find happiness. Optimism is full of positive possibilities. It leads a person to happiness by reducing stress and pulling people towards a more positive future. Helen Keller wrote an essay on Optimism in 1903. She wrote, â€Å"Optimism is the faith that leads to achievement. No pessimist ever discovered the secret of the stars, or sailed to an uncharted land, or opened a new doorway to the human spirt. † This is a true statement because having faith in ones self will encourage that person to set new goals in their lives and better yet help them have the will power to achieve them.It is wi th a pessimistic attitude that people give up too quickly on their goals or possibly never even set them to begin with. With optimism comes hope, perseverance, and self confidence. It is with hope that one strives for a better tomorrow. It is perseverance that wills a person to keep trying. Confidence gives people the ability to believe that everything will turn out all right. All of these things portray optimism. Making yourself happy by seeing the better side of situations in life will lead to success. Optimism in everything they do will bring out the best qualities and skills in a person, and this will lead to true happiness.

What Ive Learned Writing Internationally

What Ive Learned Writing Internationally I’m based in South Africa, but many of my clients aren’t. Writing internationally opens you up to a whole new reader-base, and it means access to more paying gigs! Getting in Break in Language and style switches    Read the publications you aim to pitch. Keep language and style differences in mind: UK, US and South African English differ, and it pays to know why. While saying â€Å"robot† to mean â€Å"traffic light† is fine in SA English, it’ll confuse readers anywhere else! Books like The UK to USA Dictionary are a big help. Keep an eye on exchange rates Exchange rates affect your budget when writing internationally. In my case, the South African rand weakened drastically against the U.S. dollar (approximately R15.39 per one US dollar) last year, and it meant a minor bump in pay for a while. But of course, that fluctuates. Charge clients the same rates, but convert your per hour or page rate into the applicable currency (and yes, it’s okay to round off). Sites like XE (xe.com) help you convert currencies (xe.com/currencyconverter) and keep an eye on applicable exchange rates. Payment Different countries use different payment systems. While a direct bank transfer is fine for local clients, my international clients pay via PayPal. Do your research on which payment system is the most popular in the country you’ll be writing for, so you don’t get any nasty delayed payment surprises. Cashing money paid via PayPal to my bank account takes an additional five to eight business days, so I’ve learned to account for that. Taxes internationally Know the tax rules in your country and theirs. In addition to my own tax forms, I’ve had to fill out a W-8BEN (Certificate of Foreign Status of Beneficial Owner) form for international vendors. I’ll also have to consider PayPal income from international clients part of my tax returns, and so will you. investopedia.com/terms/w/w8form.asp It’s about time Always mind time zones, especially for meetings, off days and holidays. Ensure you know what the time (and sometimes occasion) is elsewhere. This helps when pitching seasonal content, too, but also makes sure you’re on the same calendar page with your client. The process is constant Don’t ever think you’re â€Å"done† breaking into the market. I’m always coming up with new ideas and getting to know new markets. That way, you don’t stay too reliant on one source for an income. That’s dangerous ground for a freelancer! Having a pitching cycle (say,   sitting down to pitch every Monday and Thursday) helps you keep a continuous rhythm to it. More markets Many markets came from just picking a publication, finding the editor and asking. Allindiewriters.com, Writersweekly.com , and WritersJobBoard.com are more market sources.   Search engine tricks like these are also useful:   Ã‚     Specific sites: site:sitename keyword   Ã‚     Exact phrases: ‘search term’ (searches an exact phrase, like ‘writers market’ or ‘$50’)   Ã‚     Adding results: +searchterm   Ã‚     Decluttering results: -searchterm

The Legality of Abortion

The Legality of Abortion Free Online Research Papers The issue of legality of abortion has been discussed for decades. The legality of abortion is a right that every human being has the right to decide. If one tries to take away that right he is taking away the right for an individual to make a choice. Although legal this essay will deal with the moral implications of abortion. The decision to abort a child is one that is very complex and one must factor in their current status in life. Induced abortion can be traced to ancient times. There is evidence to suggest that, historically, pregnancies were terminated through a number of methods, including the administration of abortifacient herbs, the use of sharpened implements, the application of abdominal pressure, and other techniques. During this time period induced abortions were carried out in a very barbaric way, and that is one of the reasons why there is such a major controversy of the issue today. An argument exists that with uncertainty about when life begins, having an abortion is equivalent to consciously taking the risk of killing another, or manslaughter. For example, Ronald Reagan stated in a paper he co-authored if you dont know whether a body is alive or dead, you would never bury it.† Some argue that abortion is morally wrong because it deprives the fetus of a valuable future. On this account, killing an adult human being is wrong because it deprives the victim of a future like ours a future containing highly valuable or desirable experiences, activities, projects, and enjoyments. If a being has such a future, then killing that being would seriously harm it and hence would be seriously wrong. But since a fetus does have such a future, the overwhelming majority of deliberate abortions are placed in the same moral category as killing an innocent adult human being. Not all abortions are unjustified according to this argument: abortion would be justified if the same justification could be applied to killing an adult human. All these arguments are good but one must look deeper into the act of â€Å"taking a life†. If I were to walk into the middle of Times Square and shoot the President dead I would automatically be apprehended and would be tried as a traitor guilty of high treason. If I were to use that some gun to kill Osama Bin Laden if I were to see him in Times Square I would be heralded as a patriot. In both instances I took a life, but what many of us forget is that the circumstances surrounding the action are more important than the act itself. The point I am trying to convey is that each unborn baby will affect each prospective parent in its own unique way. If I were to ask a group of conservatives if having sex is wrong many of them would say yes without asking for more details. To the others who did not answer the question right away they would probably say that if you are married it is perfectly fine but if you are not married then it is wrong. This proves my previous statement that circumstantial ethics is a part of our everyday lives. The same theory can be applied to many other actions, and one of them is abortion. The status at which you are in your life is the deciding factor in whether it is morally right or wrong. The same way if you kill a man who was trying to kill a group of children at a local school it is fine, but if you kill a man because you find out he slept with your wife it is wrong. This status is a conglomerate. Age, marital status, income, degree of education and social standing in the world are just a few items that compose ones status in life. According to Family Enterprising, a conservative Christian group based in Tampa Florida, The number of single mothers increased from three million to ten million between 1970 and 2000. Eighty-four percent of single parents in America are women, which means that either there was a divorce and the mother took custody or the father is not in the picture due to circumstances other than death or health related issues. One might read this and just see a whole bunch of numbers and dates plastered next to each other but let us look at the effects of having a child when you are not socially ready for one. According to the U.S Census Bureau Report the majority of criminals are males that grew up without a father to show them love and support and show them how to be a real man. If you know that a father will not be in the picture and you live in an urban neighborhood that is known for crime and violence your child, especially son has more than a fifty percent chance of being convicted of a felony. Premarital sex and premarital children are the demise of our society. I believe that one major indicator of whether having an abortion is warranted before God is ones marital status. If you are married I do not believe there is a valid reason other than rape or harm to the mother for having an abortion. To have an abortion while married for reasons other than the aforementioned is like murdering someone in a fit of rage. You succumbed to your instincts instead of doing what is morally right. Another criterion is financial status. If you are not financially stable enough to provide a child with adequate nutrition and care than I believe that an abortion is a valid way out of the undesirable situation. Level of education goes hand and hand with financial status. If you are a first generation college student and by having the baby you will then continue the cycle of poverty that has plagued your family for several generations you have to do what is good. When I say good I speak of the overall good. I agree that having premarital sex is a mistake, but your mistake should not have to follow you and plague you for the rest of your life. Life I agree is a gift, but the quality of life is an issue that all of us agrees, whether we know it or not, is very important. If it weren’t then we wouldn’t have fundraisers to end poverty in America because as long as the people are alive that all that matters. Right? If quality of life were not a serious issue then the only reason our conscious would feel uneasy is when someone was being killed, or when someone’s life was threatened. If the quality of life that the child will be exposed to us less than the standard for the society in which you live you then have the right to an abortion. There is a direct correlation between the increase in poverty and the increasing crime rate. There is also a correlation between poverty and single parents. Using the transitive property, which states if a is equal to b and b is equal to c then a is equal to c, one can say that single parenting under the aforementioned conditions is not only bad for the child but for the so ciety in which the child will be introduced. With all the facts why is it that people have taken such rigid positions on the issue such as pro-life, or pro-choice? We as a generation do not like to use our brains. Asking a man If he is prolife or prochoice is like asking a man if he is pro-sex or anti-sex. The issue is very complicating and must be fully analyzed before a decision is made. To conclude abortions are not to be used lightly they are to be used, besides the traditional rape and harm to the mother reasons, as a resort to better your life or for the betterment of society. Research Papers on The Legality of AbortionPersonal Experience with Teen PregnancyCapital PunishmentInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesComparison: Letter from Birmingham and CritoArguments for Physician-Assisted Suicide (PAS)Incorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in CapitalEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenGenetic EngineeringThe Project Managment Office SystemRelationship between Media Coverage and Social and

Architect William Holabird and the First Skyscrapers

Architect William Holabird and the First Skyscrapers Architect William Holabird (born September 11, 1854 in Amenia Union, New York), along with his partner Martin Roche (1853-1927), forged Americas early skyscrapers and launched an architectural style known as the Chicago School. The architectural firms of Holabird and Roche, Burnham and Root, and Adler and Sullivan were some of the most influential teams in American architectural history and modern design. William Holabird began his education at the West Point Military Academy, but after two years he moved to Chicago and worked as a draftsman for William Le Baron Jenney, who is often called Father of the Skyscraper. Holabird founded his own practice in 1880, and formed a partnership with Martin Roche in 1881. The Chicago School style featured many innovations. The Chicago window created the effect that the buildings were composed of glass. Each large pane of glass was flanked by narrow windows that could be opened. Many of the first skyscrapers were built in Chicago, Illinois after the Great Fire of 1871. In Chicago, Holabird and Roche designed the Tacoma Building (1888), the Pontiac Building (1891), the Old Colony Building (1893), the Marquette Building (1895), the LaSalle Hotel (1909), the Brooks Building (1910), the Palmer House (1923), and the Stevens Hotel (1927). Between 1889 and 1908 Holabird and Roche built a number of buildings at Fort Sheridan, Illinois - 66 buildings have been designated a National Historic Landmark District. In addition to their Chicago skyscrapers, Holabird and Roche became leading designers of large hotels in the midwest. The Plankinton Building in Milwaukee Wisconsin started off as a two-story building in 1916 and five more floors were added in 1924. The Plankinton, like other new tall buildings being built at the time, was steel frame with a facade of terra cotta.   After William Holabirds death on July 19, 1923, the firm was reorganized by his son. The new firm, Holabird Root, was highly influential in the 1920s. The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation is proud to own and occupy the Marquette Building in Chicago. As a supporter of creativity, the Foundation is the perfect owner of a building steeped in history. Early skyscrapers from the Chicago School era are now over a century old, if they havent already been torn down. Holabird and Roche designed the original 1924 neoclassical style Soldier Field in Chicago, a national landmark stripped of its designation after a gut-wrenching 21st century renovation. Restoration and historic preservation are the price of caring for history.

Analysis paper on christianity and buddism Essay

Analysis paper on christianity and buddism - Essay Example Jesus was a well taught religious teacher who preached peace, love and belief in the almighty God. It is stated in the Bible that he learned in the Synagogues at an early age conversing with the elders as early as of age of 12. Then the Bible makes no account for Jesus life and picks back up with Jesus being baptized in the Jordan river by his cousin John the Baptist around the age of twenty. Jesus traveled teaching to the poor in surrounding cities reinforcing John the Baptist message of repentance. Like Buddhism, Jesus had a version of karma, which can be defined by Jesus’ message as you reap what you sow. After approximately 8 years of healing, preaching and teaching, Jesus was crucified and then days later resurrected only to disappear. Buddhism have several similar beliefs as Christianity. Buddhist attempt to live a tranquil life by eliminating internal practices that would lead to suffering, such as jealousy, anger and ignorance. Buddha, also known as Siddhartha Gautama, was a prince who knew not poverty nor suffering. Around the age of twenty, Siddhartha left the comforts of the palace to seek the reason for suffering. After approximately 6 years of wandering and exercising yogic practices, he sat under a bodhi tree to practice deep meditation and became Buddha, the enlightened one. Buddhist believe that overcoming a negative and confused state of mind will help end all suffering and attain enlightment and peace. Another teaching that aligns with Christianity is Buddhism belief in meditation. Buddhist believe in learning how to develop peaceful and tranquil virtuous mindsets by sitting quietly for periods of times. This can be likened to Christianity as Jesus was infamous for going into deep prayer, The Bible states that Jesus once prayed for forty days and forty nights. One popular aspect of Buddhism is karma. Karma suggest that every action has a consequence and those consequences would have to be

Elements of Design Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Elements of Design - Movie Review Example It is also important to familiarize with the cast and the other important people that made the film a success in order to grasp the ideology within. The movie Safe House is a contemporary movie produced in the year 2012 and an analysis of the film explains certain aspects. This is a captivating action/drama movie with Scott Stuber as the production designer. One of the world’s acclaimed movie directors, Daniel Espinosa, directed the movie. The movie creator incorporated the talent of art director, Jonathan Hely- Hutchinson to assist in his area of expertise. The cast of Denzel Washington alongside other widely recognized artists gave the production team of the movie a smooth time as it was dealing with professionals. Daniel Espisona being an acclaimed movie director took on his responsibilities as a director very well. His role in the various design aspects portrayed in the film was very clear. As a director, he had the authority to state his views on the intonation that the a ctors used on different sets. He was also responsible for overseeing the lighting of the various scenes in the movie in relation to the changes in environment that the actors played in. He also directed the actors on the manner in which to present themselves in front of the camera for greater perception of their talent. The production designer, Scott Stuber also did a very impressive job culminating to the captivating result of the film. He was very concerned with the high amount of competition that the film industry has had over the last couple of years and thus added some allure to get more fans. Scott’s role in the overall design project involved overseeing the presentation of each screenplay and delegating specific activities to the various people involved in each screenplay. He had the responsibility of identifying the visual aspects of the film to create a clear picture that could captivate the audience. Jonathan Hely- Hutchinson as the art director also had a very impo rtant role in the success of the film. His position in the general creation of the film was that below Scott Stuber. His job description involved receiving instructions from the production designer and implementing them. Each set in the movie had its individual designers and it was the responsibility of Jonathan to ensure that each of them had the required equipments to ensure that visual ground plan for each shot location was in order. To get a deeper understanding of the various roles that these artists play, it is important to focus on one scene in the movie and gain a perspective of all the constituents that made it a blockbuster. The plot of the movie is that one ex Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), Tobin Frost, receives a file that contains incriminating information about one major goon by the name Vargas. Vargas gets on his trail in an effort to kill him and retrieve the file that leads to the government offering protection for Frost in a safe house. An agent Weston who assi sts Frost escape after an attempted attack by Vargas guards the safe house. The two escape to discrete places in South Africa hoping that Vargas does not catch up with them. The scene to focus on is that of Cape Town Stadium (Espinosa, 2012). The lighting at the scene is unique in that it is very imperative to bring out the conditions in which the actors were. The two actors ran into the stadium as a haven where they could get away from the perpetrator chasing them. The lighting is

Is the U.S. seeking to contain China Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Is the U.S. seeking to contain China - Essay Example China is believed to be aggressive and power hungry. Over the years it has built-up its military force and deployed them massively in the region. Such moves are seen as a threat to the security and stability of the region and a deliberate attempt by china to assert its power over its neighbours. This action prompted the U.S to construct an off shore alliance with other military forces in the eastern and southern borders of China such as Japan and South Korea. The U.S also formed the SEATO and ANZUS treaties which linked up countries such as Thailand, Philippines, Australia and New Zealand as its allies in the period between 1949 and 1969. It maintained military bases in these regions and also went to the extent of encouraging them to refrain from entering into diplomatic ties with china. However, over the years the Chinese have managed to create a coalition with some of its neighbours who are dedicated to containing Chinese power. Notably these coalition partners include South Korea, Vietnam and the Philippines all of whom previously were U.S allies. This in some circles can be viewed as a deliberate move by the Chinese government to move into the territory previously occupied by the Americans. Such moves are further fuelling tensions of the intentions of such a quest for power and dominance by China. Furthermore, the Chinese constant threats to Japan over the island dispute amid the already heightened tensions created by its military forces are not helping the situation. These islands called Diaoyo by the Chinese and Senkaku by the Japanese has ushered in a new rise to probable aggressions and security instability especially considering Chinas firm stand on the subject. These threats to Japan further escalated when the Chines targeted a Japanese ship with its weapon s radar, a situation that did not go unmentioned when Japans prime minister issued a stern response terming that move as dangerous. An article that appeared in Chinas Daily, by Wang Xiaoxuan, confirmed that the territorial disputes were dangerous and needed prompt action from both parties. China has also been highly vocal criticizing the U.S. and its activities in the region. In 2009,

What are the expectations and perceptions of the role of a supply Dissertation

What are the expectations and perceptions of the role of a supply teaching assistant - Dissertation Example In collaboration with the â€Å"Every Child Matters† agenda launched in United Kingdom; the emerging trend of utilizing multi agency approach in a school setting has led to the involvement of a range of specialized support staff, other than teachers, who work with children. Employed either by schools or â€Å"Local Educational Authorities†, teaching assistants or â€Å"TAs† offer a variety of services depending on their level of expertise for meeting educational, pastoral and social needs of children in a class room environment (Westcott, 2008).This research will help to envisage the altering nature of classroom support system in United Kingdom and how well teaching assistants are coping with these pedagogical arrangements. It will primarily discuss the makeshift in UK school systems regarding the increase in number of teaching assistants after the implementation of â€Å"work force reform† that was initiated to transform the primary and secondary learning patterns thus lessening work load of teachers (Estyn, 2007). With coming years issues concerned with role definition of teaching assistant resurfaced. Nature of work became more inclined to submerge the teacher and support staff boundaries. Sometimes TAs faces neglect in a school setting. It may happen that they succumb to the subordination of head teachers without honing their job related skills (Ebersold, 2003, p.103). This research will be focused on determining the underlying challenges faced by supply teachers as they try to substitute various responsibilities that were once considered the â€Å"sole remit of the teacher† (Fraser & Meadows, 2008, p.351). Research questions that will be sought in this study include: Whether the impact of improper guidance by senior teachers deviate the career direction of supply assistants? Other than support provisons, do teaching assistants play any significant role in curriculum development? What is the level of ambiguity or role conf usion faced by teaching assistants in a school setting? Is the training offered to TAs sufficient for their professional development? What is the future potential of teaching assistants in UK schools? 3) Please give a short description of the methodological approach that you intent to take in this research, the research methods you will use and the data you wish to gather. [200 words] The research approach for this study will mostly be qualitative. For secondary data, relevant literature will be studied to gain insights about the perceptions of role disposition of supply teachers as held by parents, teachers and children. Contemporary research work as well as the work done by previous school practitioners will be considered for making generalized analysis of the chosen topic. For carrying out this study reviews of parents and children will be gathered to know the perception they hold with respect to the teaching assistant working in the school environment. Primary tools of data coll ection will comprise of questionnaire survey and interviews with parents and school faculty. Participant observation technique will be employed to judge the behavior of students in presence of a teaching assistant. As a research sample, three schools will be selected on random basis in the locality of Manchester offering both primary and secondary education. Target audience for the participant observation will be 30 students from age group 5-12 years. Their movements and gestures will be recorded while the class is being controlled by the supply learning assistant.

International human resource management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

International human resource management - Essay Example As a function of understanding the list of complexities that must be entertained, this brief analysis will count the following as the main determinants that must be engaged with in order to effectively set wages for multinational employees: level and types of skills required, the overall supply and demand dynamics of the labor force, geographic considerations, employment setting, compensation philosophy, employment stability, tenure, and governmental regulations. It is the hope of this author that be analyzing these key determinants, the reader will be able to draw a further level of inference upon the key dynamics that define the means by which any large multinational firm must engage upon the issues of wage setting and salary concerns with international partners. The first issue that any firm or organization must integrate with is the kinds and level of experience that they require. One can understand this as a simple function of asking whether or not the jobs that are being offere d will require a high level of education or prior experience or whether they can easily be filled by any number of individuals (Winkler et al, 2013). As such, with regards to the British expatriate managers and engineers, the salary determinations can and will be effectively straight forward as they will reflect a slight and/or nominal increase over the rate of pay they received in England due to the fact that they will now be required to move to location and be remunerated based upon the additional strain and hardship that such a lifestyle and location change necessarily portends (Simpson, 2007). Conversely, the externalities of skill necessarily dictate how the local employees will be salaried and to what extent these salaries will be commensurate with or far below the same levels of expertise offered elsewhere in the world. The single most important determinant of labor and the rate at which it is paid is of course the supply and demand ratios that exist within the given system. This can be understood through a situation in which a given economy may have 1000 workers who specialize in the labour fields of A, B, C but only have 5 employees that specialize in labour field D. As a function of this low level of representation within the labour market, these individuals necessarily command a premium; both in the country in question as well as likely within the world at large (Songstad et al, 2011). The supply and demand for labor within a given market is one of the reasons that many firms have sought to export and/or relocate talent acquisition portions of their business to different regions around the globe. In hopes of saving money and finding the cheap and extant talent that can further drive their firm or organization, many entities have sought to merely move operations to where the labor specializations are highly concentrated; albeit not always necessarily cheaper. This is done as a means of providing a base of production and specialization that can be dra wn upon for many years into the future. With regards to the salary concerns for those individuals that will be brought into the given system as expatriates, again concern should be given for these individuals that they are paid commensurately with the specialists in their field at home as well as commensurately, and likely higher than, those individuals who specialize in their own field within the nation in question (Ployhart

What are the expectations and perceptions of the role of a supply Dissertation

What are the expectations and perceptions of the role of a supply teaching assistant - Dissertation Example In collaboration with the â€Å"Every Child Matters† agenda launched in United Kingdom; the emerging trend of utilizing multi agency approach in a school setting has led to the involvement of a range of specialized support staff, other than teachers, who work with children. Employed either by schools or â€Å"Local Educational Authorities†, teaching assistants or â€Å"TAs† offer a variety of services depending on their level of expertise for meeting educational, pastoral and social needs of children in a class room environment (Westcott, 2008).This research will help to envisage the altering nature of classroom support system in United Kingdom and how well teaching assistants are coping with these pedagogical arrangements. It will primarily discuss the makeshift in UK school systems regarding the increase in number of teaching assistants after the implementation of â€Å"work force reform† that was initiated to transform the primary and secondary learning patterns thus lessening work load of teachers (Estyn, 2007). With coming years issues concerned with role definition of teaching assistant resurfaced. Nature of work became more inclined to submerge the teacher and support staff boundaries. Sometimes TAs faces neglect in a school setting. It may happen that they succumb to the subordination of head teachers without honing their job related skills (Ebersold, 2003, p.103). This research will be focused on determining the underlying challenges faced by supply teachers as they try to substitute various responsibilities that were once considered the â€Å"sole remit of the teacher† (Fraser & Meadows, 2008, p.351). Research questions that will be sought in this study include: Whether the impact of improper guidance by senior teachers deviate the career direction of supply assistants? Other than support provisons, do teaching assistants play any significant role in curriculum development? What is the level of ambiguity or role conf usion faced by teaching assistants in a school setting? Is the training offered to TAs sufficient for their professional development? What is the future potential of teaching assistants in UK schools? 3) Please give a short description of the methodological approach that you intent to take in this research, the research methods you will use and the data you wish to gather. [200 words] The research approach for this study will mostly be qualitative. For secondary data, relevant literature will be studied to gain insights about the perceptions of role disposition of supply teachers as held by parents, teachers and children. Contemporary research work as well as the work done by previous school practitioners will be considered for making generalized analysis of the chosen topic. For carrying out this study reviews of parents and children will be gathered to know the perception they hold with respect to the teaching assistant working in the school environment. Primary tools of data coll ection will comprise of questionnaire survey and interviews with parents and school faculty. Participant observation technique will be employed to judge the behavior of students in presence of a teaching assistant. As a research sample, three schools will be selected on random basis in the locality of Manchester offering both primary and secondary education. Target audience for the participant observation will be 30 students from age group 5-12 years. Their movements and gestures will be recorded while the class is being controlled by the supply learning assistant.

Coal Energy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Coal Energy - Essay Example Millions of people depend on it for their living. (Bisk). But because of the strong protests from environmentalists, it was difficult to process these coal energies for the energy requirements of United States. This article argues that the cavalier attitude of ivory tower environmentalists towards the millions of working and middle class people who make their livings (directly and indirectly) from coal creates enemies of the environmental movement amongst the very people who should be the most avid allies of environmentalism (Bisk). It suggests some ways of preventing the environment problems caused by the processing or extraction of coal energy through coal liquification. It focuses its attention on the link between the worlds large coal reserves and the green energy movement. Energy crisis is one of the severe problems faced by many countries irrespective developed or developing. The huge population growth and the heavy industrialization processes made energy an inevitable entity for the modern life. It is unimaginable to think about a world without electricity or vehicles. At the same time most of the conventional energy sources like coal and petroleum are non-renewable energies and also the processing of these energy sources is creating lot of problems to the environment. Environmentalists have raised a huge protest against the injudicious processing of coal like energy sources. The article suggests that by using coal liquification process US can produce a barrel of oil for about $30. Even though this process may release more CO2 than the extraction and refinement of liquid fuel from petroleum the author suggests some ways to counter such problems. In his opinion; the environmentalist’s protests can be reduced if the coal liquification process would liberate only half a ton of CO2 for every ton of greenhouse

Summary Paper Essay Example for Free

Summary Paper Essay In a May 22, 2011 article Why are so many students still failing online? the author, Rob Jenkins, argues the difference between online and on-campus classes. There is a problem with students failing online classes, but I believe that hybrid classes should be the primary choice. Jenkins mentioned that online classes are a better choice, but not with all classes. Jenkins asks, Can we agree that none of us would want to be operated on by surgeons who received all of their medical training online?† Online classes have their limits, but also have more conveniences. For example, Jenkins states that For students who arent able to attend college in the traditional way, good enough, can be a godsend. They are less costly and the enrollment rate is higher than on-campus courses. Online courses seem to be the future according to Jenkins. On the other hand, I disagree because the problem of students failing online classes exists because of the success rates. Online classes have a lower rate because classes such as speech should be taken in a traditional classroom instead of online. Some professors tried to have the students do their speeches on their own time but video tape them and send them to the professor to watch and evaluate. While this idea seems to work, I still believe that online courses such as this one are better taken in the classroom than online. Jenkins argues in a department meeting that faculty members should use the same principal as entry level on-campus classes and have students take an entrance exam to see if they score high enough to be able to take them successfully. The administrators told Jenkins that it more than likely wouldnt happen. Jenkins is in a working progress of getting the online class success rate up higher and making it a majority of the community college life. However, while Jenkins plan may succeed, I still believe that it is the wrong choice. Every college course is beneficial in some way or another, and almost all of them bring up questions throughout the semester that would be better answered in a classroom setting. The students would get more out of asking in class than through email. Again, in my opinion, I think campus classes should be the majority of the college life.

Strategic Management Case Studies Marketing Essay

Strategic Management Case Studies Marketing Essay 1.1 What are the key differences between the two accounts of Hondas entry into the US market? 1The first case is narrated by The Harvard Business School based on the Boston consulting (BCG) Report whereas the second case, An Insiders Account of Hondas Entry into the US Market is a direct narration recorded by Richard Pascale. The BCG report explains on the Honda Company as a matured business and a mix of its competitors in the US. As affirmed in the case; Hondas competitors were Harley-Davidson, BSA, Triumph, Norton, and Moto-Guzzi. Whereas, the second case enlightens how the company initiated from scratch and its journey through the difficult times. Richard Pascales article explains the challenges that the company went through during its commencement, such as difficulty in getting funds; treatment of the motorcycle dealers was discourteous, while in the BCG article no challenges were mentioned. The BCG report emphasizes more on the Hondas in-depth research and development department for instance having more staff; as said in the article, the RD was staffed with 700 designers/engineers, increase in the production level as a result more investment in the RD department. While the second case doesnt explain anything with regard to the research and development since it is taking the business at an initiative level. The BCG report highlights target market in general whereas the second article explains target market in details as said in the case, the company chose Los Angeles as the location whereby their target market consisted of second and third generation of Japanese community. Richard Pascales article clearly identified the companys products offered to the market as stated in the article; the products were 50cc, 125cc, 250cc and 350cc machines while in the first essay explains the general overview of the companys products. 1.2 REFERENCE AND BIBLIOGRAPHY: Reference: Number Reference list Reference type 1 Herbert Rotters former Goldwing page former Yamaha Virago 1100 page, Personal Homepage, Honda Motorcycle 350 CB [Image] http://www.porzellanpuppen.at/hpbikes/bikeenglish.htm Electronic Source Cover Page Image 2 Greenwich University; Course Work: The Honda Effect, Case Study Scenario. Article Bibliography: http://www.google.com CASE STUDY 2- LAURA ASHLEY 2 2.1 Map Laura Ashleys stakeholders using a power/interest matrix. 3Stakeholders are individuals, groups or organizations who are affected directly or indirectly by organizations goals, objectives, actions and policies. 4Stakeholder Analysis is a tool used to recognize the stakeholders and investigate their needs as they are the ones who are concerned with the actions taking place within the organization. The aim of this analysis is to identify the stakeholders interests, concerns and manage relationships with them. The method used to access stakeholders is Mendelows Stakeholder Matrix which has two dimensions; Power and Interest with four quadrants.  [5]  Interest talks about the stakeholders concern towards a project whereas power talks about the control over the project. Power A Minimal Effort B Keep Informed C Keep Satisfied D Key Players Low High Figure 1 Low High Interest Minimal Effort people who need to be observed without boring them with unnecessary communication. Keep Informed people who need to be informed sufficiently, talked and make sure that no major issues take place. They can help with the developing the project details. Keep Satisfied people who need to be well satisfied with nothing much that would bore them whilst comprehending of the assignment. Key Player- people who must be associated and satisfied with the efforts made. 6Laura Ashleys stakeholders are Analysts, London Stock Exchange Market, Malayan United Industries (MUI) shareholder Dr. Khoo, Customers, Government and Suppliers. It is essential that the stakeholder management should be conducted so as to know each stakeholders level of power and interest along with their impact on the company. However it is sometimes difficult to locate all companys stakeholders in one frame as in the case of Laura Ashley. Beneath is the table, of the Stakeholder Map showing the strategies that are applied for Laura Ashley. Stakeholders Power Interest Strategy Analysts London Stock Exchange Market Dr. Khoo High High Key Players Customers High High Key players Government High High Key players Suppliers High High Key players Table 1 Below is the Power/ Interest matrix showing Laura Ashleys Stakeholders. Power A Minimal Effort B Keep Informed C Keep Satisfied D Key Players Dr. Khoo Customers Government Suppliers Low High Low High Figure 2 Interest 2.2 REFERENCE AND BIBLIOGRAPHY: Reference: Number Reference list Reference type 3 Vintage Verity Adoring all things vintage, retro and downright quirky Laura Ashley logo [Image] http://vintageverity.wordpress.com/2008/02/27/cath-kidson-v-laura-ashley/ Electronic Source Cover Page Image 4 Business Dictionary, An Ask.com Service, Definition of Stakeholder http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/stakeholder.html Johnson et al, 2009, Fundamentals of Strategy: Definition of Stakeholder, 1st edn, page 90. Electronic Dictionary Book 5 Wikipedia, October 16, 2008, Stakeholder Analysis, Wikipedia Encyclopedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stakeholder_analysis BaBou, March 9th, 2008, Leadership Champions, What is Stakeholder Analysis? Part 1: Definition and aim of Stakeholder Analysis, http://leadershipchamps.wordpress.com/2008/03/09/what-is-stakeholder-analysis Electronic Encyclopedia Electronic Source 6 Mind Tools Essential Skills for an excellent career, Winning Support for your Projects, Stakeholder Analysis: Mendelows Stakeholder Matrix, http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newPPM_07.htm BaBou, March 10th, 2008, Leadership Champions, What is Stakeholder Analysis? Part 2: Mendelows Stakeholder Matrix, http://leadershipchamps.wordpress.com/2008/03/09/what-is-stakeholder-analysis/ Electronic Source Electronic Source 7 Greenwich University; Course Work: Laura Ashley, Case Study Scenario Article Bibliography: http://www.google.com CASE STUDY 3- APPLYING A BALANCED SCORECARD 7 3.1 What arguments would you use to persuade an organization to adopt the Balanced Scorecard approach? 8A Balanced Scorecard (BSC) is a tool that is used to measure a companys business activities in relation to its vision along with its strategies. It provides managers a complete knowledge of the business performance. 9Figure 1 Usually when organizations measure performance, it is the financial area that is given more attention while the rest of the aspects are not taken much into consideration. It is therefore important that organizations should pursue in using the balanced scorecard.  [10]  Below are some of the benefits which the organizations will gain. One of them being a source of direction since it guides the management as well as helps identify what needs to be measured in order to accomplish organizational goals which will in return act as a competitive advantage for the firm. With Balanced Scorecard, firms are able to determine both financial as well as non-financial measures. As said in the case study, the balance scorecard was to combine three new sets of measures with the customary financial ones, embracing the customer, learning and growth, and internal issues such as quality improvement and cost control. Balanced scorecard allows firms to develop as well as expand so as to align new organizational strategies, as said by Mr. Hofmeister in the case study, it gives us better and better alignment (between all operating units) and focuses attention on whats important and on results. Through the balanced scorecard, organizations are able to the compare past experience in order to improve its performance which will help predict what will happen in the future. Although the growth of practicing balanced scorecard is slow, however many organizations have already accepted and are applying it. 3.2 REFERENCE AND BIBLIOGRAPHY: Number Reference list Reference type 8 Businessballs.com, Balanced Scorecard; Kaplan and Nortons organizational performance management tool Balance Scorecard [Image] http://www.businessballs.com/balanced_scorecard.htm Electronic Source 9 Papaers4You, Guide on How to write University Essays, Coursework, Assignments and Dissertations: Definition of Balanced Scorecard, 2002-2007, http://university-essays.tripod.com/balanced_scorecard.html Business Knowledge Source, What is a Balanced Scorecard, and what does it have to do with manufacturing? Definition of Balanced Scorecard, http://www.businessknowledgesource.com/manufacturing/what_is_a_balanced_scorecard_and_what_does_it_have_to_do_with_manufacturing_023647.html Ali, Md. Mohobbot, The Balanced Scorecard (BSC) A Critical Analysis, http://eprints.lib.okayama-u.ac.jp/1391/1/18_0219_0232.pdf Electronic Source Article Electronic Source Electronic Source PDF DOC 10 Queensland Government, Southbank Institute of Technology, Strategic goals: Balanced Scorecard Framework [Image] http://www.southbank.edu.au/site/about/corporate/mission.asp Electronic Source 11 Balboa, Jun 26, 2005. ECheat; Porters Five Forces, Value chain, Balanced: Critically evaluation of Porters five forces, Value Chain Analysis, Balanced Scorecard Benefits of Balanced Scorecard. http://www.echeat.com/essay.php?t=27147 Business Knowledge Source, What is a Balanced Scorecard, and what does it have to do with manufacturing? Benefits of Balanced Scorecard, http://www.businessknowledgesource.com/manufacturing/what_is_a_balanced_scorecard_and_what_does_it_have_to_do_with_manufacturing_023647.html Partnering to Success, The Balanced Scorecard: Benefits from using the Balanced Scorecard, http://www.thebalancedscorecard.com/benefits_bsc.htm Ali, Md. Mohobbot, The Balanced Scorecard (BSC) A Critical Analysis: Benefits of Balanced Scorecard http://eprints.lib.okayama-u.ac.jp/1391/1/18_0219_0232.pdf Beverly Dianne Calhoun, Oct 19, 2004, Using the Balanced Scorecard to Determine Corporate Information Needs: Benefits of Balanced Scorecard http://www.designbydi.com/documents/BalScrCrd.pdf Greenwich University; Course Work: Appling a Balanced Scorecard, Case Study Scenario Electronic Source Article Electronic Source Article Electronic Source Article Electronic Source PDF DOC Electronic Source PDF DOC ArticleReference: CASE STUDY 4- FIAT: REBIRTH OF A CARMAKER 11 4.1 Using the information in the case study undertake a SWOT analysis of Fiat at the time of Sergio Marchionnes appointment and suggest how a SWOT analysis in 2008 may differ. 12SWOT analysis is used for scanning an organization (internal factors) as well as its environment (external factors). The internal factors include strengths(S) and weaknesses (W) while the external factors include opportunity (O) and threats (T). 13SWOT ANALYSIS FOR FIAT GROUP AUTOMOBILES: Below is a table showing SWOT Analysis before the year 2004. Strengths weaknesses Fiat offered differentiated products. That is; it provides the market with a variety of cars. The companys hierarchy line was long making it more bureaucratic. Fiat cars were viewed as a quality brand. It lacked well developed core competence lending to ugly and unstylish cars. The company was well reputed. It needed to maintain its debts. Ability of manufacturing small cars. Licensing agreement with Bosch for financial support in exchange with the diesel technology that Fiat had. opportunities Threats Fiat had a chance of wining the market share from rivals. Competition with existing automobile firms. The market is ready to accept the new and stylish cars. Partnership agreement with General Motors for giving it them the right to sell its cars. Risk of employing new members to the Fiat family. Table 1 Below is a table showing SWOT Analysis after the year 2004. Strengths weaknesses Distinctive competence of designing low cost equivalent four-cylinder engine. Limited resources. Using technology by means of computer for simulation. Lack of knowledge with regard to entering new markets. For example the Chinese market. Producing new and stylish car designs. Drop in the market share. Competitive advantage of cutting down time to reach the market. Declined performance of the company since Fiat only sold 2000 cars in china, India and Russia. Fiats cars are exploited to have relative fuel efficiency. It is the first carmaker to put forward diesel engines that met the so-called Euro 5 fuel standards. opportunities Threats Winning the market share. Rivalry of potential new competitors. Expanding product line with new and innovative stylish cars. Rivalry with existing competitors such as VW and PSA Peugeot Citroen. Entering into joint venture for instance, with companies like SAIC (China) and TATA (India). Adverse demographic. For insistence Russian market; is it ready to accept the cars offered to them? Entering new geographic markets such as Brazilian, China, India and Russia. Challenge in controlling quality of the car brand. Fiat cars expect to have lower average emissions than any other competitor due to its fuel efficiency. Risk of employing new members to the Fiat family. Table 2 Comparing SWOT analysis before and after 2004: The company is able to increase its growth by entering new and emergent markets. As said, Fiat is expecting to have its sales from different areas such as outside Western Europe, China, India, Russia and soon overtake Germany. Fiat will also be able to increase sales along with its market share whereas before 2004, its sales were dropped; market share had declined and a lot of debt was to be paid. With introduction of technology, new stylish cars were offered to the market with reducing time at development area so as to start the production as soon as possible. The firm was able to rectify mistakes that it made earlier. For example the licensing agreement with Bosch in exchange with the diesel technology that Fiat had. Below is a table showing a comparison between the two SWOT Analyses. 2004 2008 Sales were dropped, Market share declined and a lot of debt was pending to be paid. Sales along with its market share increased. Fiats core competence had ceased. Developed new competences such as designing low cost equivalent four-cylinder engine, usage of technology, cutting down time to reach the market, relative fuel efficiency, put forward diesel engines. Mistake of licensing with other companies in order to support their finances in exchange with their ability. The firm will not repeat the same mistake of licensing; hence it will protect its competitive advantages. The companys hierarchy line was long making it more bureaucratic. The hierarchy line had become shorter making it less bureaucratic allowing the process to be smooth. Table 3 By 2008, most of the weaknesses had been reduced due to the rearrangement of the organizational system however, at the same time; a lot of improvement has been made. Therefore in order to develop, it is essential that the company takes many risks, as done by the Fiat Group Automobiles, since it is through this, the company has reached where it is now. 4.2 REFERENCE AND BIBLIOGRAPHY: Reference: Number Reference list Reference type 12 Legendarydevils, Thread: 140 Fiat Cars Wallpapers, Fiat Cars Image http://www.legendarydevils.com/english/2173933-140-fiat-cars-wallpapers.html Electronic Source Cover Page Image 13 Quick MBA Knowledge to Power your Business, Strategic Management: Defining SWOT Analysis. http://www.quickmba.com/strategy/swot/ Marketing Teacher Est 2000, Lesson: SWOT Analysis, Definition of SWOT analysis. http://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_swot.htm Electronic Source Electronic Source 14 Greenwich University; Course Work: Fiat: Rebirth of a carmaker, Case Study Scenario. Tutors notes on SWOT Analysis Article Bibliography: http://www.google.com CASE STUDY 5- THE PROFITABILITY OF UK RETAILERS 14 5.1 Use the industry analysis framework to explain the profitability of the main supermarket chains in the UK. Analyzing profitability of any Industry is done through The Five Forces Model that was put forward by Michael Porter. Beneath is a figure of the model. 15Figure 1 16Below is an industrial analysis showing the profitability of the main UK supermarket chains. SUPPLIERS Bargaining power of the suppliers is Low since British firms have command over their suppliers. As said in the case; British firms are more experienced and more skillful in their buying power to extract better terms from suppliers. BUYERS Customers bargaining power is also Low since the supermarket groups have control over them. As said in the case; The UK groups exert massive buying power by utilizing the oligopoly power to impose a higher-than-normal price on their customers. RIVALRY The competition between existing supermarkets is extremely high, due to the fact that there are many groups within this industry which have similar products / services. SUBSTITUTES Threat of substitutes is high as customers can switch to other shops instead of going to the supermarkets since they might be charged with a higher price as compared to other shops providing similar products at a lower price. Secondly, the suppliers could also switch to other firms rather than the British supermarkets due to the buying power exerted by the supermarkets. THREATS OF NEW ENTRANTS With lots of competition, threat of new entrants is relatively high, since the industry is more profitable in UK. At the same time, UK groups have barriers that cause difficulty for new competitors to enter the industry. Some of them being: Application of IT in their logistics, Lower Labor costs and High own-label penetration. Number Reference list Reference type 15 Carpenter, M, Bauer, T, Erdogan, B, Flatworld Knowledge, Principles of Management; Developing Strategy through External Analysis Porters Five Forces Analysis of Market Structure. [Image] http://www.flatworldknowledge.com/pub/1.0/principles-management/29047#web-29047 Electronic Source Cover Page Image 16 BUS 2700 Business Driven Information Technology, chapter 2: Identifying Competitive Advantages; The Five Forces Model Evaluating Business Segments. The Five Forces Model. [Image] http://bus2700-spring08.blogspot.com/2008/01/chapter-two-identifying-competitive.html Electronic Source Image 17 Greenwich University; Course Work: The Profitability of UK Retailers Case Study Scenario. Tutors notes on Industrial Analysis: Five Forces Model Article 5.2 REFERENCE AND BIBLIOGRAPHY: Reference: Bibliography: http://www.google.com CASE STUDY 6- THE NOVOTEL VALUE CHAIN 17 6.1 Use the VRIO framework to evaluate Novotels capabilities. 18In order to have a sustained competitive advantage the firm needs to evaluate its resources and capabilities done through the VRIO framework. Below is a VRIO framework for the Novotel hotel. CAPABILITIES V R I O Implications for Competitiveness Customer service delivery; such as hospitality, greetings, warmth. Yes No No No Competitive parity Marketing techniques through distribution systems. Yes Yes/ No No No Temporary competitive advantage Firm infrastructure and Procurement through good relationships with suppliers. Yes Yes Yes No Sustainable competitive advantage Retention of Staff through staff exchange. Yes Yes No No Temporary competitive advantage Standardized system throughout the locations worldwide. Yes Yes No No Temporary competitive advantage Multi-skilled Staff. Yes Yes Yes Yes Sustainable competitive advantage Table 1 Service design is one of the key resources that Novotel has, making it valuable. It includes the layout of the hotel allowing the customers to easily access the public spaces such as bars and restaurants. Distribution systems are attained by good relationships with distributors. Novotel has achieved to operate in both individual and corporate business as well as leisure markets. Firm infrastructure and Procurement Novotels relationships with partners develop a strong bond creating a valuable asset to the organization. Its efficiency allows delivering both economies of scale and scope making it rare and difficult to imitate. Staff retention is the most essential resource required in this industry. To retain and motivate, is a challenge Novotel was competent to do, thus reducing staff turnover through staff exchanges resulting to value creation. Standardization in all the locations worldwide is another benefit that Novotel has; allowing the staff to understand basic functions. This technique is valued and rare. Novotels Multi-skilled staff creates an exceptional resource and is most valued. The skills given to them during the training makes them capable of doing multiple tasks. Most of the capabilities conclude to be temporary competitive, since the industry is such that many competitors can imitate most of the capabilities and resources that the Novotel hotel has, directly or indirectly. Hence Novotels most sustainable competitive advantages are obtaining and retaining its multi-skilled staff that can work flexibly as well as having good relationships with suppliers. Number Reference list Reference type 18 tophotelsphuket.com, Top Hotels in Phuket, Thailand, Novotel Hotels and Resorts Novotel logo [Image] http://www.tophotelsphuket.com/hotels/novotel-hotels-phuket.htm Electronic Source Cover Page Image 19 Applying the VRIO Framework: An Overview; VRIO Analysis. http://academic.udayton.edu/DianeSullivan/Other%20Helpful%20Files/Applying%20the%20VRIO%20Framework.doc Abraham Z. et al, Pacific Lutheran University School of Business, Vodafone Strategic Evaluation; VRIO Analysis, 2007. http://www.plu.edu/~vennataj/doc/vodafone.doc Scott Gallagher, 2004; Why do firm performance differ? Internal Analysis VRIO Analysis; Updated on 1st Nov 2007, http://falcon.jmu.edu/~gallagsr/WDFPD-Internal.pdf Greenwich University; Course Work: The Novotel Value Chain Case Study Scenario Tutors notes on: VRIO Analysis Electronic Source Word Doc. Electronic Source Word Doc. Electronic Source PDF Doc Article 6.2 REFERENCE AND BIBLIOGRAPHY: Reference: Bibliography: http://www.google.com CASE STUDY 7- THE LEVISS PERSONAL PAIR PROPOSAL 19 7.1 What position in the market does Levis occupy (use the strategy clock to characterize its position)? 20Bowman derived the strategic clock into four quadrants, having eight dimensions namely; No fill, Low price strategy, Hybrid, Differentiation, Focused differentiation, Increased price / Standard value, Increased price / Low value, Standard price/ Low value. The clock is compared in terms of Perceived Price and Perceived Benefit or Added Value as shown below. 21Figure 1 By using the strategic clock, Levis business environment is positioned to be in the fourth category which is the Differentiation. This is because; Levis offers a variety of products that have added value as well as a premium price slightly higher than the normal in order to satisfy the consumers needs. Levis products have Quality, Brand Image and Product Design and as a result creates Price premium, Customer Loyalty, giving the company a competitive advantage against its competitors. Due to Levis brand recognition and loyalty, its price offered is also slightly higher than its rivals therefore prevents itself from entering the price-based competition. As said in the case; Due to brand recognition and loyalty they did not enter into price based competition thus controlling reasonable price premium Levis also provides a wide range of products such as pants, shorts, skirts, jackets, and outwear. As said in the case; while blue jeans remain the companys mainstay, the San Francisco based company also sells pants made of corduroy, twill and various other fabrics as well as shorts, skirts, jackets, and outwear. With a premium price, along with its strong brand name, Levis has been able to position itself in the differentiation category, resulting into value-added products, hence gaining higher profit margins. 7.2 REFERENCE AND BIBLIOGRAPHY: Reference: Number Reference list Reference type 20 Feed the Interns A Daily Bite, Thursday, August 12th, 2010, Levis arent just for dads anymore?; Levis Logo [Image] http://feedtheinternsblog.blogspot.com/ Electronic Source Cover Page Image 21 Dagmar Recklies, April 2001, Literature by: David Faulkner and Cliff Bowman, The Management.de The Essence of Competitive Strategy, The Strategic Clock Strategies on the basis of price and value: Differentiation strategy. http://www.themanagement.de/ressources/Strategy%20Clock.htm Strategy Explorers, Bases of Competitive Advantage: The Strategy Clock http://www.strategyexplorers.com/whitepapers/Do-you-have-a-competitive-strategy.pdf Zanthus Corp. 2007; Business Strategy Bowman, C. and Faulkner, D.; Competitive and Corporate Strategy; Irwin; 1996 Bowman Strategy Clock http://www.zanthus.com/databank/strategy/business_strategy.php?aspr Greenwich University; Course Work: The Levis Personal Pair Proposal Case Study Scenario. Tutors notes on: VRIO Analysis Electronic Source- Article Electronic Source- PDF Doc Electronic Source- Article Article 22 Zanthus Corp. 2007; Business Strategy Bowman, C. and Faulkner, D.; Competitive and Corporate Strategy; Irwin; 1996 -Bowman Strategy Clock:[Image] http://www.zanthus.com/databank/strategy/business_strategy.php?aspr Electronic Source- Article Bibliography: http://www.google.com CASE STUDY 8- THE VIRGIN GROUP 22 8.1 Does the virgin Group, as a corporate parent, add value to its businesses? If so how? 23According to Johnson et al, Corporate parenting is the level of management above that of the business units, and therefore without direct interaction with buyers and competitors. (Johnson et al, 2009, p.172). Below are some of the areas through which the Virgin Group corporate parent adds value to its businesses. First the corporate parent has added value in establishing a strong brand name such as being a consumers champion through which barriers to entry could be overcome. Virgin is a reputed and well known brand in the market, thus enabling it to expand itself in static markets. In addition, the Virgin Group has a good resource management team. Branson together with his expertise and experienced team, review business proposals every week, out of which, appropriate prospects that match with the Virgin brand are then discussed. This enables Virgin to identify industries as well as institutionalized markets in which to enter. Moreover, the corporate parent assists in reducing organizational risks by entering into many joint ventures. Through these ventures Virgin, is able to penetrate new or untapped feasible markets allowing it attain low costs as well as expansion. Furthermore, Virgin Groups management style and leadership system is decentralized providing its managers with flexibility in decision making. Branson is mostly involved when it comes to marketing and promotion. In terms of innovation, the brand name itself tends to invite like minded partners to venture new m

Civil Rights and Legislation in Mississippi Essay -- Black Civil Rights

The civil rights movement spurred the passing of much federal legislation throughout the 1950’s and 60’s. Although, race relations eventually changed in Mississippi due to federal force, civil rights legislation would pass but segregation continued in Mississippi because of unsupportive state government, lack of federal enforcement and white Mississippians continuous threats and intimidation. The civil rights movement in the 1950’s and 60’s was a monumental event in American history. The large amount of legislation passed in accordance with this movement was greatly outnumbered by the many horrendously, violent acts that occurred throughout it. Judicial decisions such as Brown v. Board of Education in 1954 should have been able to inspire hope within black communities. Yet the brutality of events such as the murder of Emmett Till and Medgar Evens, as well as staunch, white resistance like the Southern Manifesto, kept many African Americans desire for freedom repressed by their desire for safety. The civil rights movement was opposed with some of the most unrelenting resistance in the state of Mississippi. Organizations tackling integration in Mississippi were met with unyielding violence and discrimination, by both citizens and local officials. â€Å"†¦going into Mississippi to organize was not like going to any other state in the South. Mississippi w as the heart and soul of segregation. It resisted integration more fiercely than any of the other southern states.† Legislation passed and judicial decisions continued to be made in favor of civil rights but the federal government failed to enforce these successfully. As early as 1947 the President’s Commission on Civil Rights declared, â€Å"The very fact that these outrages [lynching] c... ...ce equal rights eventually became the standard in Mississippi and throughout the South. Works Cited 1. R. Edward Nordhaus, â€Å"S. N. C. C. and the Civil Rights Movement in Mississippi, 1963-64: A Time of Change,† The History Teacher, Vol. 17, No. 1 (November 1983), 95. 2. Eric Foner, "The United States and the Cold War, 1945 – 1953," in Voices of freedom: a documentary history. Third ed. (New York: W.W. Norton, 2011), 232. 3. Anne Moody, Coming of Age in Mississippi, (New York: Random House, 1968), 413. 4. Moody, Coming of Age in Mississippi, 403. 5. Nordhaus, â€Å"S. N. C. C. and the Civil Rights Movement in Mississippi,† 96 6. Eric Foner, "An Affluent Society, 1953 - 1960," in Voices of freedom: a documentary history. Third ed. (New York: W.W. Norton, 2011), 253. 7. Nordhaus, â€Å"S. N. C. C. and the Civil Rights Movement in Mississippi,† 97

Symbolism and Repression in The Yellow Wallpaper -- Yellow Wallpaper e

Symbolism and Repression in The Yellow Wallpaper      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s story, â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper† is as a wonderful example of the gothic horror genre. It was not until the rediscovery of the story in the early 1970’s that â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper† was recognized as a feminist indictment of a male dominated society. The story contains many typical gothic trappings, but beneath the conventional faà §ade hides a tale of repression and freedom told in intricate symbolism as seen through the eyes of a mad narrator. It is difficult to discuss the meaning in this story without first examining the author’s own personal experience. â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper† gives an account of a woman driven to madness as a result of the Victorian â€Å"rest-cure,† a once frequently prescribed period of inactivity thought to cure hysteria and nervous conditions in women. As Gary Scharnhorst points out, this treatment originated with Dr. Weir Mitchell, who personally prescribed this â€Å"cure† to Gilman herself. She was in fact driven to near madness and later claimed to have written â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper† to protest this treatment of women like herself, and specifically to address Dr. Weir Mitchell with a â€Å"propaganda piece.† A copy of the story was actually sent to Mitchell, and although he never replied to Gilman personally, he is said to have confessed to a friend that he had changed his treatment of hysterics after reading the story (15-19). Although the autobiographical aspects of â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper† are compelling, it is the symbolism and the underlying feminist connotations that lead best to discussion. First is John, the narrator’s husband. He could be viewed as the patriarchy itself, as Beverly Hume says, with his dismissal of all... ... J.   Ã‚  Ã‚   Kennedy and Dana Gioia. 6th ed. New York: Harper Collins, 1995. 424-36. Hume, Beverly A. â€Å"Gilman’s Interminable Grotesque’: The Narrator of ‘The Yellow Wallpaper.’† Studies in Short Fiction 28.4 (1991):477-84. Johnson, Greg. â€Å"Gilman’s Gothic Allegory: Rage and Redemption in ‘The Yellow Wallpaper.’† Studies in Short Fiction 26.4 (1989):521-30. King, Jeannette and Pam Morris. â€Å"On Not Reading between the Lines: Models of Reading in ‘The Yellow Wallpaper.’† Studies in Short Fiction 26.1 (1989): 23-32. Owens, E. Suzanne. â€Å"The Ghostly Double behind the Wallpaper in Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s ‘The Yellow Wallpaper.’†   Ã‚  Ã‚   Haunting the House of Fiction. Ed. Lynette Carpenter and Wendy K. Kolmar. Knoxville: U of Tennessee P, 1991 64-79. Scharnhorst, Gary. â€Å"‘The Yellow Wallpaper.’† Charlotte Perkins Gilman. Boston: Twayne, 1985. 15-20.  

Kssr Sains

TAJUK 1| Isu-isu dalam Pendidikan Sains| SINOPSIS Topik ini membincangkan beberapa isu-isu dalam pendidikan sains. Isu-isu ini berkaitan dengan matlamat pendidikan sains, kandungan pendidikan sains, pengajaran sains dan literasi saintifik. HASIL PEMBELAJARAN 1. Mengenal pasti dan membincangkan isu-isu dalam pendidikan sains. 2. Analisis kesan-kesan isu-isu yang berkaitan dengan pendidikan sains dalam pengajaran sains di sekolah-sekolah rendah. Kerangka Tajuk-tajuk Rajah 1. 0 Kerangka tajuk ISI KANDUNGAN 1. Isu- isu Kurikulum Sains Preparing a national science curriculum that will help school students develop their scientific competencies alongside their acquisition of science knowledge requires attention to four issues. 1. Selection of science content (knowledge, skill, understanding and values) There is a consistent criticism that many of the problems and issues in science education arise from the structure of science curricula which tend to be knowledge-heavy and alienating to a si gnificant number of students.A curriculum that covers an extensive range of science ideas hampers the efforts of even the best teachers who attempt to provide engaging science learning for their students. The effect of such knowledge-laden curricula is for teachers to treat science concepts in a superficial way as they attempt to cover what is expected in the curriculum. Rather than developing understanding, students therefore have a tendency to rely on memorisation when taking tests of their science learning. The challenge is to identify the science concepts that are important and can be realistically understood by students in the learning time available.One of the realities faced in science education is that scientific knowledge is rapidly increasing. While this is valuable for our society, it adds to the pressure on the science curriculum. There is a reluctance to replace the old with the new. Rather, there is a tendency to simply add the new science ideas to the traditional ones . Accompanying this desire to retain the traditional knowledge base is a feeling that understanding this content exemplifies intellectual rigor. Obviously such a situation is not sustainable.The consequence is that many students are losing interest in science. The question then needs to be asked: what is important in a science curriculum? This paper argues that developing science competencies is important, understanding the big ideas of science is important, exposure to a range of science experiences relevant to everyday life is important and understanding of the major concepts from the different sciences is important. It is also acknowledged that there is a core body of knowledge and understanding that is fundamental to the understanding of major ideas.The paper also proposes that it is possible to provide flexibility and choice about the content of local science curriculum. The factors that influence this choice include context, local science learning opportunities, historical per spectives, contemporary and local issues and available learning resources. In managing this choice, there is a need to be conscious of the potential danger of repetition of knowledge through a student’s school life and ensure repetition is minimised and that a balanced science curriculum is provided for every student.Finally, when selecting content for a national science curriculum it is important to determine how much time can reasonably and realistically be allocated to science and within this time constraint what is a reasonable range of science concepts and skills for learning in primary and secondary school. 2. Relevance of science learning a curriculum is more likely to provide a basis for the development of scientific competencies if it is relevant to individual students, perceived to have personal value, or is presented in a context to which students can readily relate.Instead of simply emphasising what has been described as ‘canonical science concepts’, there is a need to provide a meaningful context to which students can relate (Aikenhead 2006). Furthermore, students will be better placed to understand the concepts if they can be applied to everyday experiences. To provide both context and opportunities for application takes time. To increase the relevance of science to students there is a strong case to include more contemporary (and possibly controversial) issues in the science curriculum.In doing so, it is important to note that the complexity of some scientific issues means that they do not have clear-cut solutions. Often, the relevant science knowledge is limited or incomplete so that the questions can only be addressed in terms of what may be possible or probable rather than the certainty of what will happen. Even when the risks inherent in making a particular decision are assessable by science, the cultural or social aspects also need to be taken into consideration.The school science curriculum should provide opportunities to explore these complex issues to enable students to understand that the application of science and technology to the real world is often concerned with risk and debate (Rennie 2006). Science knowledge can be applied to solve problems concerning human needs and wants. Every application of science has an impact on our environment. For this reason, one needs to appreciate that decisions concerning science applications involve constraints, consequences and risks. Such decision-making is not value-free.In developing science competencies, students need to appreciate the influence of particular values in attempting to balance the issues of constraints, consequences and risk. While many students perceive school science as difficult, the inclusion of complex issues should not be avoided on the basis that there is a potential for making science seem even more difficult. The answer is not to exclude contemporary issues, but rather to use them to promote a more sophisticated understanding of the nature of science and scientific knowledge.It is important to highlight the implications of a science curriculum that has personal value and relevance to students. This means that the curriculum cannot be a ‘one size fits all’, but rather a curriculum that is differentiated so that students can engage with content that is meaningful and satisfying and provides the opportunity for conceptual depth. In this respect the science curriculum should be built upon knowledge of how students learn, have demonstrated relevance to tudents’ everyday world, and be implemented using teaching and learning approaches that involve students in inquiry and activity. Within the flexibility of a science curriculum that caters for a broad cohort of students and a range of delivery contexts, there is a need to define what it is that students should know in each stage of schooling. In this way, students can build their science inquiry skills based on an understanding of the major ide as that underpin our scientific endeavour. 3.General capabilities and science education There is an argument, based on research within science education, that curriculum needs to achieve a better balance between the traditional knowledge-focused science and a more humanistic science curriculum that prepares students for richer understanding and use of science in their everyday world (Fensham, 2006). Beyond the science discipline area there is also pressure in some Australian jurisdictions to develop a broader general school curriculum that embraces the view of having knowledge and skills important for future personal, social and economic life.While there is much value in such futuristic frameworks, there is the danger that the value of scientific understanding may be diminished. Unless the details of the general capabilities refer specifically to science content, the importance of science may be overlooked and the curriculum time devoted to it decrease. The science curriculum can re adily provide opportunities to develop these general capabilities. Such general capabilities as thinking strategies, decision-making approaches, communication, use of information and communication technology (ICT), team work and problem solving are all important dimensions of science learning.There is an increasing number of teachers who will require assistance to structure their teaching in ways that enable students to meld the general life capabilities with the understanding and skills needed to achieve scientific competencies. Such assistance will be found in the provision of quality, adaptable curriculum resources and sustained effective professional learning. 4. Assessment When a curriculum document is prepared there is an expectation that what is written will be what is taught and what is assessed. Unfortunately, there is sometimes a considerable gap between ntended curriculum, the taught curriculum and the assessed curriculum; what can be assessed often determines what is tau ght. This disconnect is a result of the different pressures and expectations in education system. An obvious goal in curriculum development is that the intended, taught and assessed dimensions of curriculum are in harmony. The importance of assessment in curriculum development is highlighted in the process referred to as ‘backward design’ in which one works through three stages from curriculum intent to assessment expectations to finally planning learning experiences and instruction (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005).This process reinforces the simple proposition that for a curriculum to be successfully implemented one should have a clear and realistic picture of how the curriculum will be assessed. Assessment should serve the purpose of learning. Classroom assessment, however, is often translated in action as testing. It is unfortunate that the summative end-of-topic tests seem to dominate as the main tool of assessment. Senior secondary science assessment related to university entrance has long reinforced a content-based summative approach to assessment in secondary schools.To improve the quality of science learning there is a need to introduce more diagnostic and formative assessment practices. These assessment tools help teachers to understand what students know and do not know and hence plan relevant learning experiences that will be beneficial. Summative testing does have an important role to play in monitoring achievement standards and for accountability and certification purposes, but formative assessment is more useful in promoting learning.Assessment should enable the provision of detailed diagnostic information to students. It should show what they know, understand and can demonstrate. It should also show what they need to do to improve. It should be noted that the important science learning aspects concerning attitudes and skills as outlined in the paper cannot be readily assessed by pencil and paper tests. For that reason, it is important to e mphasise the need for a variety of assessment approaches. While assessment is important, it should not dominate the learning process.Structure of the curriculum There is value in differentiating the curriculum into various parts that are relevant to the needs of the students and the school structure (Fensham, 1994). 5. In regard to the school structure, the nature of the teacher’s expertise becomes a factor to consider. For early childhood teachers, their expertise lies in the understanding of how children learn. Secondary science teachers have a rich understanding of science while senior secondary teachers have expertise in a particular discipline of science. Each part would have a different curriculum focus.The four parts are: †¢ early childhood †¢ primary †¢ junior secondary †¢ senior secondary. Developing scientific competencies takes time and the science curriculum should reflect the kinds of science activities, experiences and content appropriate for students of different age levels. In sum, early science experiences should relate to self awareness and the natural world. During the primary years, the science curriculum should develop the skills of investigation, using experiences which provide opportunities to practice language literacy and numeracy.In secondary school, some differentiation of the sub-disciplines of science may be appropriate, but as local and community issues are interdisciplinary, an integrated science may be the best approach. Senior secondary science curricula should be differentiated, to provide for students who wish to pursue career-related science specializations, as well those who prefer a more general, integrated science for citizenship. Early Childhood Curriculum focus: awareness of self and the local natural world. Young children have an intrinsic curiosity about their immediate world. They have a desire to explore and investigate the things around them.Purposeful play is an important feature of thei r investigations. Observation is an important skill to be developed at this time, using all the senses in a dynamic way. Observation also leads into the idea of order that involves comparing, sorting and describing. 2. PrimaryCurriculum focus: recognising questions that can be investigated scientifically and investigating them. During the primary years students should have the opportunity to develop ideas about science that relate to their life and living. A broad range of topics is suitable including weather, sound, light, plants, animals, the night sky, materials, soil, water and movement.Within these topics the science ideas of order, change, patterns and systems should be developed. In the early years of primary school, students will tend to use a trial and error approach to their science investigations. As they progress through their primary years, the expectation is that they will begin to work in a more systematic way. The notion of a ‘fair test’ and the idea of variables will be developed, as well as other forms of science inquiry. The importance of measurement will also be fostered. 3. Junior secondaryCurriculum focus: explaining phenomena involving science and its applications.During these years, the students will cover topics associated with each of the sciences: earth and space science, life science and physical science. Within these topics it is expected that aspects associated with science for living, scienceinquiry and contemporary science would be integrated in the fields of science. While integration is the more probable approach, it is possible that topics may be developed directly from each one of these themes. For example, there may be value in providing a science unit on an open science investigation in which students conduct a study on an area of their choosing.While there may be specific topics on contemporary science aspects and issues,teachers and curriculum resources should strive to include the recent science research in a particular area. It is this recent research that motivates and excites students. In determining what topics students should study from the broad range of possibilities, it is important to exercise restraint and to avoid overcrowding the curriculum and providing space for the development of students’ science competencies alongside their knowledge and understanding of science content.Topics could include states of matter, substances and reactions, energy forms, forces and motion, the human body, diversity of life, ecosystems, the changing earth and our place in space. The big science ideas of energy, sustainability, equilibrium and interdependence should lead to the ideas of form and function that result in a deeper appreciation of evidence, models and theories. There are some students ready to begin a more specialised program science in junior secondary and differentiation as early as Year 9 may need to be considered to extend and engage these students’ interest and skills in science. . Senior Secondary. There should be at least three common courses across the country: physics, chemistry and biology. There could also be one broader-based course that provides for students wanting only one science course at the senior secondary level. It could have an emphasis on applications. The integrating themes of science for life, scientific inquiry and contemporary science should be embedded into all these courses where realistically possible. Other specialised courses could also be provided. Existing courses in the states and territories are among the possibilities available.National adoption would improve the resources to support the individual courses. (Sumber: National Curriculum Board (2008). National Science Curriculum: Initial advice. Retrieved 10 Sept. 2009 from www. acara. edu. au/verve/_†¦ /Science_Initial_Advice_Paper. pdf) | Latihan| 1. Baca kandungan diatas. 2. Nyatakan isu-isu dalam pendidikan sains yang ditemui dalam kandungan di atas. 3. Bincang dan tuliskan refleksi sebanyak dua halaman tentang kesan daripada isu-isu pengajaran sains rendah. | | Membuat Nota| Mengumpul maklumat mengenai literasi sains dan hubungannya dengan pendidikan sains dari buku atau internet.Membina peta minda untuk menyatakan maklumat yang anda telah berkumpul. | . . Senarai Semak Jawab ujian di bawah bagi menguji tahap literasi saintifik anda. Test of Scientific Literacy Answer each question with ‘true' if what the sentence most normally means is typically true and ‘false' if it is typically false. 1. | Scientists usually expect an experiment to turn out a certain way. | | 2. | Science only produces tentative conclusions that can change. | | 3. | Science has one uniform way of conducting research called â€Å"the scientific method. | | 4| Scientific theories are explanations and not facts. | | 5. | When being scientific one must have faith only in what is justified by empirical evidence. | | 6. | Science is just about the fa cts, not human interpretations of them. | | 7. | To be scientific one must conduct experiments. | | 8. | Scientific theories only change when new information becomes available. | | 9. | Scientists manipulate their experiments to produce particular results. | | 10. | Science proves facts true in a way that is definitive and final. | | 11. An experiment can prove a theory true. | | 12. | Science is partly based on beliefs, assumptions, and the nonobservable. | | 13. | Imagination and creativity are used in all stages of scientific investigations. | | 14. | Scientific theories are just ideas about how something works. | | 15. | A scientific law is a theory that has been extensively and thoroughly confirmed. | | 16. | Scientists’ education, background, opinions, disciplinary focus, and basic guiding assumptions and philosophies influence their perception and interpretation of the available data. | 17. | A scientific law will not change because it has been proven true. | | 18. | A n accepted scientific theory is an hypothesis that has been confirmed by considerable evidence and has endured all attempts to disprove it. | | 19. | A scientific law describes relationships among observable phenomena but does not explain them. | | 20. | Science relies on deduction (x entails y) more than induction (x implies y). | | 21. | Scientists invent explanations, models or theoretical entities. | | 22. | Scientists construct theories to guide further research. | 23. | Scientists accept the existence of theoretical entities that have never been directly observed. | | 24. | Scientific laws are absolute or certain. | | Jawapan 1. T|   9. T | 17. F |   Ã‚  Ã‚  | 0 wrong = A+| 2. T | 10. F | 18. T |   Ã‚  Ã‚  | 1 wrong = A| 3. F  | 11. F | 19. T |   Ã‚  Ã‚  | 2 wrong = A-| 4. T | 12. T | 20. F |   Ã‚  Ã‚  | 3 wrong = B+| 5. T | 13. T | 21. T |   Ã‚  Ã‚  | 4 wrong = B| 6. F | 14. F | 22. T |   Ã‚  Ã‚  | 5 wrong = B-| 7. F | 15. F | 23. T |   Ã‚  Ã‚  | 6 wrong = C | 8. F | 16. T | 24. F |   Ã‚  Ã‚  | 7 wrong = D| | | | | 8 or more wrong = F| RujukanFleer, M. , & Hardy. T. (2001). Science for Children: Developing a Personal Approach to Teaching. (2nd Edition). Sydney: Prentice Hall. Pg 146 – 147) National Curriculum Board (2008). National Science Curriculum: Initial advice. Retrieved on10 Sept. 2009 from :www. acara. edu. au/verve/_†¦ /Science_Initial_Advice_Paper. pdf Hazen, R. M. (2002). What is scientific literacy? Retrieved on 10 Sept. 2009 from : http://www. gmu. edu/robinson/hazen. htm | Tamat Topik 1| TAJUK 2| Kurikulum Sains Pendidikan Rendah Malaysia | SINOPSISTopik ini menggariskansejarah perkembangankurikulumsainssekolah rendahdi Malaysia. Kurikulum di Malaysia telah melaluibeberapaperubahandariKajianAlam Semulajadi, Projek Khas, Alam dan ManusiadanSainsKBSRsekarang HASIL PEMBELAJARAN 1. Menyatakan perubahan dalam kurikulum sains sekolah rendah di Malaysia. 2. Menyatakan rasional untuk perubahan dalam kurikulum sains s ekolah rendah di Malaysia. 3. Membandingbezakan kekuatan dan kelemahan setiap kurikulum sains sekolah rendah yang telah diperkenalkan di Malaysia. Kerangka Tajuk Rajah 2 : Kerangka Tajuk-TajukISI KANDUNGAN 2. 0Sains Sekolah Rendah: Mengimbas kembali Dalam sejarah perkembangan pendidikan sains sekolah rendah di Malaysia, ia boleh disimpulkan bahawa perubahan kurikulum adalah satu inovasi (Kementerian Pelajaran dan UNESCO, 1988; SEAMEO-RECSAM, 1983; SEAMEO-RECSAM, 1973). Perubahan ini juga merupakan multidimensi dalam erti kata lain ia melibatkan sekurang-kurangnya tiga dimensi dalam pelaksanaannya (Fullan, 1991). Komponen-komponennya adalah seperti berikut: (i)penggunaan bahan-bahan kurikulum yang disemak semulaatau baharu atau berteknologi; ii)penggunaan pendekatan baharu; (iii)pengubahsuaian kepercayaan, contohnya, andaian pedagogi dan teori berkenaan polisi baharu atau inovasi. Di Malaysia, semua perubahan kurikulum yang berlaku akan dilaksanakan oleh Kementerian Pendidikan dan ak an disebarkan kepada semua sekolah-sekolah di negara ini. 2. 1Kajian Alam Semulajadi Pada akhir abad kesembilan belas hingga pertengahan abad kedua puluh, sains diajar di sekolah rendah sebagai Kajian Alam Semulajadi, melibatkan pengetahuan tentang fakta-fakta dan hukum-hukum alam semulajadi sebagai asas penyiasatan saintifik.This approach had the advantage that students were encouraged to learn through careful observation and classification, but it ignored much of the natural environment that had an impact on students’ lives(Keeves and Aikenhead, 1995). Pengajaran sains di peringkat sekolah rendah telah dilaksanakan dalam semua bidang (botani, biologi, sains bumi, kimia dan fizik) secara beransur-ansur dan dihubungkaitkan dengan persekitaran dan pengalaman seharian murid. 2. 2Projek Khas KajianAlam Semulajadi telahdigantikan dengansukatan pelajaranSainsRendahpada tahun 1965.Inovasiini telah diadaptasikandariNuffield Junior Science project,UK (1964),tetapidisesuaikandengan ke perluantempatan. Kurikulumberasaskan subjek, di manatumpuan adalahpadapenguasaanpengetahuan saintifikdan bukannyaciri-cirimurid. Kebanyakanguru-gurusainsdisekolah rendah, terutamanyadi kawasan luar bandar mempunyai latar belakangpendidikan yang rendah (terdiri darigredenamhinggasembilaniaituhanya enamhinggasembilan tahunpersekolahanasas) tetapijuga telahmenerima latihanprofesionalyangtidak mencukupidalammetodologisains dan kandungan dalam mata pelajaranitusendiri.Mereka jugadilatih sebagai guru untukmengajarsemuamata pelajaransekolahrendah. Banyakamalan dalam bilik darjahberpusatkanbuku teks danpenghafalannota. Pencapaian prestasi murid-murid didapati lemah di sekolah-sekolah rendah luar bandar, terutamanya dalam bidang sains, maka Kementerian Pelajaran telah memperkenalkan Projek Sains Rendah Khas (Projek Khas) pada tahun 1968. Projek ini menggunakan pendekatan baharu untuk pengajaran sains bagi sukatan pelajaran yang sedia ada.Rasional memperkenalkan pendekatan pengajaran yang bah aru dan bukannya perubahan kurikulum adalah kerana Kementerian Pelajaran mendapati bahawa guru-guru sudah biasa dengan sukatan pelajaran yang sedia ada. Langkah ini telah mengurangkan trauma guru-guru terhadap perubahan kurikulum. Kurikulum telah diambil daripada Council Science 5 – 13 project, UK(1967) dan projek-projek sains yang lain di Amerika Syarikat, seperti Science- A Process Approach (1967), yang telah dilaksanakan pada masa itu, tetapi disesuaikan dengan keperluan tempatan.Ia menekankan pengajaran berpusatkan murid, berorientasikan aktiviti, dan pembelajaran penemuan melalui penggunaan buku kerja. Ia juga menyediakan perkhidmatan sokongan guru yang berterusan dalam melaksanakan sukatan pelajaranyang sedia ada, terutamanya di kawasan luar bandar. Buku Panduan guru, buku kerja dan bahan-bahan yang digunakan adalah berorientasikan penyiasatan telah dihasilkan untuk Darjah Satu ke Darjah Enam. Ketua Pengarah Pelajaran pada masa itu, Haji Hamdan bin Sheikh Tahir, menulis dalam halaman pengenalan semua buku panduan, Objective of this Special Project is to equip teachers with new teaching methodology in the hope of generating pupils who will be able to experiment and think and really know all the concepts that will be taught by the teacher. All the activities suggested in the guide-book will reduce the pupils’ reliance on rote learning and encourage them to gain experiences in a concept that is taught. It is hoped that pupils will be attracted to science not only in the primary schools but also in the secondary schools. † (Standard One Science Guide-book, 1971)Pada tahun 1970, satu pelan tindakan telah disediakan bertujuan untuk menentukan tarikh bagi melengkapkan setiap fasa dalam projek khas ini. Pensyarah-pensyarah maktab latihan guru dan guru-guru sekolah sains rendah telah dihantar berkursus di luar negara untuk mendapatkan pengalaman terus berkenaan model kurikulum dan bahan-bahan yang digunakan di sana dan membuat penyesuaian untu k keperluan tempatan. Apabila kembali ke tanahair, mereka dipinjamkan ke Pusat Sains, kini Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum (CDC) untuk menulis dan menyediakan buku panduan guru.Penulisan buku panduan mengikuti pola umum. Pertama, sukatan pelajaran standard yang diberikan telah dikaji semula dan dibincang bersama semua kakitangan yang terlibat dalam pendidikan sains seperti pensyarah universiti, pelatih guru, pemeriksa sekolah, pembangun kurikulum dan guru-guru. Topik-topik yang disusun semula(jikaperlu), dan jenis pengalaman yang boleh disediakan bagi murid-murid telah dikenal pasti. Seterusnya, pelbagai sumber telah diteliti untuk idea-idea yang relevan dan berguna.Kemudian, pendekatan umum yang digariskan telah dilaksanakan kajian rintis dan draf telah dikaji semula. Akhir sekali, buku panduanini telah siap ditulis, hasildari bengkel-bengkelpenulisan, pengumpulanbahan-bahankurikulumdariseluruhdunia, terutamanya bahan-bahan dariprojek-projekyangtelahdisokong olehpenyelidikan dankajian rintis yang dikendalikandalam situasibilik darjahsebenar. Malangnya, bahan-bahan yangdisimpantelahmusnah dalam kebakarandi Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum sekitarbulanApril, 1997.Beberapa sekolah-sekolah khas yang dikenali sebagai ‘pusat-pusat aktiviti' telah ditubuhkan untuk menampung penyebaran pengetahuan dan sumber untuk guru sekolah rendah di semua negeri. Guru-guru juga dilatih untuk menjadi juru latih utama bagi projel khas ini. Pada tahun 1970, empat puluh guru dari tiga puluh pusat-pusat ini telah dilatih khas di Kuala Lumpur. Guru-guru yang dilantik sebagai jurulatih, kemudian kembali ke sekolah-sekolah mereka masing-masing untuk melatih guru-guru yang mengajar Darjah Satu pada tahun 1971 untuk menggunakan panduan-buku dan lembaran kerja.Latihan ini diteruskan sehingga Darjah Enam. Oleh itu, juru latih utama dan guru-guru yang dilatih oleh mereka dalam kursus-kursus dalam perkhidmatan bukan sahaja dilatih, tetapi juga bertindak sebagai agen perubahan di sekolah-sekolah mereka dengan menyebarkan teknik-teknik yang diperoleh kepada guru-guru lain. Guru juga dimaklumkan tentang bahan-bahan pengajaran yang terkini dan maklum balas melalui edaran buletin yang dihasilkan oleh ‘pusat-pusat aktiviti'. Soal selidik menilai juga telah diberikan kepada guru-guru untuk memantau proses pelaksanaan dan membuat penambahbaikan berdasarkan maklum balas dan cadangan.Sepanjang projek ini, pensyarah maktab latihan guru juga terlibat dalam menyumbangkan kepakaran dan memberi latihan. Walau bagaimanapun, kekurangan tenaga pengajar terlatih menghalang aliran latihan dan pelaksanaan inovasi. Jadualperancanganyang tidak realistikgagalmengambil kiramasalahyang wujudsemasapelaksanaan. LaporanyangdibuatolehperwakilanMalaysiadiseminarSEAMEO-RECSAM pada tahun 1973bertajuk InovasiDalamKurikulumSainsSekolah Rendah DanMatematikDanMasalahPelaksanaanDi Malaysia. â€Å"The cost of curriculum development and implementation has got to be paid in time, not merely in cash and pe rsonnel.The ultimate price of having to untangle knots of mis-implementation as a result of hurried efforts will be more than whatever time is saved in pushing through an ill-planned ‘crash programme. † (Ali Razak, 1973; p. 218) Tiada jalan pintas untuk pembangunan kurikulum. Walaupun pada mulanya dirancang untuk melengkapkan penulisan buku panduan dalam tempoh dua tahun, tetapi akhirnya ia mengambil masa empat tahun. Proses pelaksanaan mengambil masa selama tujuh tahun. 2. 3Alam dan ManusiaPandangan lain mengenai pembangunan dan pelaksanaan ‘Projek Khas' telah diminta. Seorang yang bukan ahli sains, Tan Sri Profesor Awang Had Salleh (1983), yang merupakan Naib Canselor Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia pada masa itu, telah diminta memberi komen dan mengulas mengenai kurikulum sains sekolah rendah. It does provide for what might be called science literacy, but the orientation of the syllabus is towards mastery of scientific facts with little emphasis on social and rel igious meaning and significance of scientific discoveries.In other words, the syllabus is cognitively orientated with little attention given to the affective domain of educational objectives†¦ The orientation of the textbooks reinforces memory work and encourages very little, if at all, enquiry skills. .. The teaching of science subjects seems to be guided almost entirely by two powerful variables, namely, examination and textbooks. † (Awang Had Salleh, 1983; p. 63 – 64) Pandangan-pandangan ini mewujudkan beberapan persoalan : â€Å"What is science education for? What kind of pupils and society do we want to produce? Pandangan-pandangan ini menyebabkan perubahan radikal dalam pendidikan sains. Ia termasuk pendekatan pelbagai disiplin kepada pendidikan sains di mana motivasi untuk belajar dipermudahkan melalui kandungan sains kepada masalah sebenar alam sekitar. Penekanan diberi kepada kemahiran asas dalam pendidikan dan sains yang merupakan sebahagian daripada isi kandungan dalam mata pelajaran. Alam dan Manusia dalam KBSR. Kurikulum itu diperkenalkan pada tahun 1982 sebagai kajian rintis dan dilaksanakan sepenuhnya di semua sekolah rendah pada tahun 1983.Terdapat tiga komponen utama dalam mata pelajaran Alam dan Manusia iaitu: manusia, alam sekitar, dan interaksi manusia dan alam sekitar. Hubungan antara ketiga-tiga komponen itu ditunjukkan dalam Rajah 1. Bersepadu adalah perkataan yang utama dalam kurikulum sebagai kaedah untuk mengurangkan beban kandungan dan komponen-komponen disiplin dalam kurikulum yang terdahulu. Bersepadu dalam merentas kurikulum merangkumi sains, sejarah, geografi, sains kesihatan dan sivik. Terdapat juga kajian persekitaran untuk mewujudkan perkaitan sains sosial kepada dunia di luar bilik darjah.Kesepaduan hubungan antara manusia dan alam sekitar wujud melalui pendekatan siasatan dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Di samping itu, terdapat kesepaduan antara bidang, di mana kandungan kurikulum dimasukkan ke dalam st ruktur konsep dimana terdapat tema konsep tertentu melalui proses inkuiri. Komunikasi Nilai Murni Sains sosial Sains Kesihatan Manusia Dunia Fizikal PendidikansiansKreativiti Hubungan Kemahiran Hidup alamsekitar Sains dan Teknologi Alam sekeliling Rajah 1 : Kerangka Alam dan Manusia (Source: Sufean Hussain et. al. , 1988). Mata pelajaran Alam dan Manusia menekankan tiga aspek yang luas. Pertama, untuk membangunkan pengetahuan murid mengenai manusia, alam sekitar, masyarakat dan interaksi antara mereka. Kedua, untuk meningkatkan kemahiran siasatan dan pemikiran dan penggunaan kemahiran ini dalam menyelesaikan masalah.Ketiga, untuk menerapkan nilai-nilai moral dan sikap murid-murid ke arah hidup yang harmoni dalam masyarakat majmuk (‘ Alam dan Manusia ‘ sukatan pelajaran, 1984). Terdapat lima tema utama dalam sukatan Alam dan Manusia. Ianya bertujuan supaya murid-murid dapat memahami, menghargai dan menyemai kasih sayang terhadap alam sekitar dan dengan itu, membangunkan cintakan negara. Tidak seperti Projek Khas yang diperkenalkan mulai Tahun Satu hingga Tahun Enam , Alam dan Manusia mula diperkenalkan di peringkat tahap dua iaitu dari Tahun Empat hingga Tahun Enam .Bagi melaksanakan kurikulum baru ini, diadakan kursus orientasi selama satu minggu kepada guru-guru sains . Selepas kursus itu, pihak Kementerian Pendidikan menganggap bahawa tugas mereka telah di pertanggungjawabkan kepada guru-guru dan tiada sebab untuk mereka mengatakan bahawa mereka tidak mempunyai pengetahuan yang mencukupi dan cara untuk mengajar subjek sains (Syed Zin, 1990). Batasan inovasi ini digambarkan oleh Syed Zin (1990) kajian ke atas pelaksanaannya di empat buah sekolah rendah di Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia.Antara batasan utama ialah kekurangan kompetensi guru-guru dalam mengintegrasikan kandungan subjek dan menggunakan pendekatan siasatan dalam pengajaran, kurangnya latihan dalam perkhidmatan dan sokongan profesional dari segi kakitangan dan kepakaran; kekangan fizikal se perti saiz kelas yang besar dan kemudahan yang tidak mencukupi; kurang jelas dalam reka bentuk inovasi; kekaburan dalam spesifikasi kurikulum dan skop dan jarak masa yang tidak mencukupi antara percubaan dan pelaksanaan inovasi bagi penambahbaikan yang dibuat.Akibat daripada inovasi, guru-guru telah dibebani dengan beban kerja tambahan, mengakibatkan guru menjadi cemas, hilang keyakinan dalam pengajaran, bergantung kepada buku teks dan tidak memaksimumkan penggunaan bahan-bahan kurikulum. Pelaksanaan kurikulum ini hanya berlaku sebahagian sahaja kerana guru-guru tidak menggunakan strategi pedagogi dan bahan-bahan yang dicadangkan. Guru-guru masih menekankan pemerolehan pengetahuan melalui fakta ,melalui kaedah deduktif berbanding dengan pendekatan siasatan. Tiada bukti bahawa ada perubahan dalam kepercayaan dan nilai guru ke arah inovasi.Alam dan Manusia , menekankan kurikulum humanistik iaitu kesepaduan disiplin, pendekatan siasatan dalam pembelajaran, meningkatkan kemahiran berfik ir dan penerapan nilai-nilai moral. Kajian Alam Semulajadi dan Sains Rendah adalah relevan dalam pendekatan pengajaran sains. Ia dapat menarik minat kanak-kanak dan memberi makna kepada kanak-kanak kerana berkaitan dengan pengalaman harian mereka. Ia disesuaikan dengan perkembangan kognitif mereka. Dalam Projek Khas, pendekatan baru dalam pengajaran melalui penggunaan buku panduan dan bahan-bahan yang sesuai untuk membangunkan kognitif kanak-kanak diberi tumpuan. 2. 4Sains KBSR.Sukatan pelajaran sains sekolah rendah dalam KBSR telah digubal berpandukan Falsafah Pendidikan Kebangsaan dan prinsip-prinsip Rukunegara. KBSR adalah pendekatan bersepadu kepada pengetahuan, kemahiran dan nilai-nilai, pembangunan keseluruhan individu, peluang sama rata untuk pendidikan dan pendidikan sepanjang hayat. Tujuan utama KBSR adalah untuk menyediakan pendidikan asas untuk semua murid-murid dan memastikan perkembangan potensi murid-murid. secara menyeluruh. Perkembangan potensi murid-murid secara men yeluruh termasuk pembangunan intelek, rohani, fizikal dan emosi serta pembangunan diri dan memupuk nilai-nilai moral serta sikap.Sukatan pelajaran sains sekolah rendah direka untuk menampung prinsip-prinsip dan matlamat KBSR. (a)Matlamat dan Objektif KBSR Matlamat sukatan pelajaran sains sekolah rendah adalah untuk memupuk budaya sains dan teknologi dengan memberi tumpuan kepada pembangunan individu yang dapat menguasai pengetahuan dan kemahiran saintifik, memiliki nilai-nilai moral, dinamik dan progresif supaya ada tanggungjawab terhadap alam sekitar dan menghargai alam semula jadi. (Buku Panduan KBSR , Kementerian Pelajaran, 1993). Ini dapat dicapai dengan menyediakan peluang pembelajaran untuk murid-murid untuk belajar melalui pengalaman supaya mereka akan dapat; membangunkan kemahiran berfikir †¢ membangunkan kemahiran saintifik siasatan †¢ meningkatkan minat terhadap alam sekitar †¢ memahami diri dan persekitaran mereka melalui pemerolehan pengetahuan, pemahaman, fakta dan konsep †¢ menyelesaikan masalah dan membuat keputusan yang bertanggungjawab †¢ menangani sumbangan dan inovasi terkini dalam bidang sains dan teknologi †¢ mengamalkan nilai-nilai moral dan sikap saintifik dalam kehidupan seharian †¢ menghargai sumbangan sains dan teknologi kepada kehidupan yang lebih baik †¢ menghargai perintah dan penciptaan alam (Buku Panduan Sukatan Pelajaran Sains Sekolah Rendah, 1993, ms. ) Menurut Lewis dan Potter (1970) objektif di atas boleh diklasifikasikan kepada tiga tujuan utama pendidikan sains. Mereka mempercayai melalui (1) latihan kemahiran proses inkuiri (2) pemerolehan fakta dan kefahaman konsep (3) sikap yang sesuai dan dihajati dapat dikembangkan. Ketiga-tiga tujuan ini dinyatakan dalam silabus PSS sebagai objektif pencapaian yang kemudian dibahagi kepada objektif umum dan khusus bergantung kepada perkembangan kognitif murid-murid. Objektif umum adalah kenyataan untuk menerangkan pencapaian objektif yang ingin dicapai dalam domain kognitif,afektif dan psikomoto.Objektif khusus adalah huraian kepada objektif umum dan dinyatakan dalam bentuk tingkahlaku yang boleh diukur. Objektif pencapaian diiringi dengan cadangan-cadangan untuk pengalaman belajar yang membolehkan guru merancang aktiviti-aktiviti yang bersesuaian bagi mencapai objektif. (b)Kemahiran proses dan kemahiran berfikir Penguasaan kemahiran proses, kemahiran manipulatif dan kemahiran berfikir adalah ditekankan dalam sukatan PSS (Primary School Science/ Sains Sekolah Rendah). Ketiga-tiga kemahiran tersebut adalah saling berkaitan dengan pemikiran secara kritikal,kreatif dan analitik .Kemahiran proses yang dikenalpasti adalah kemahiran memerhati, mengkelasan,mengukur dan menggunakan nombor,membuat inferen,membuat ramalan, berkomunikasi, mengenalpasti hubungan ruang dan masa,mengintepretasi data, mendefinasi secara operasi, mengawal dan memanipulasi pembolehubah,membina hipotesis dan mengeksperimen. Kemahiran manipulatif adalah kema hiran psikomotor seperti mengendali,membersih dan menyimpan alat radas sains, mengendali secara selamat spesimen hidup, dan melukis secara betul spesinen dan alat radas (PSS Syllabus Handbook, 1993 m. s. 3 – 5). (c)Sikap dan nilaiSukatan PSS juga untuk menyemai sikap saintifik dan nilai yang positif ke dalam diri murid seperti minat , sifat ingin tahu kepada dunia disekeliling, kejujuran, ketepatan dalam mereko, mengesahkan data,keluwesan dan keterbukaan minda,kesabaran,kerjasama,bertanggungjawab terhadap diri sendiri,orang lain dan alam sekitar,bersyukur kepada tuhan dan menghargai sumbangan sains dan teknologi perkembangan positif sikap dan nilai perlu menjadi matlamat akhir pendidikan. (PSS Syllabus Handbook, 1993, m. s. 3 – 6). Menurut Lewis dan Potter (1970), (d)Isi kandungan PSS dilihat sebagai suatu bidang ilmu dan juga sebagai pendekatan inkuiri.Sebagai suatu bidang ilmu,sains menyediakan suatu kerangka untuk murid-murid memahami persekitaran mereka melalui apl ikasi prinsip sains dalam kehidupan harian. Pendekatan inkuiri membolehkan murid melakukan penyiasatan pada dunia di sekeliling mereka. Ini akan menggalakkan muridmenjadi kreatif,berfikiran terbuka,toleransi ,mencintai dan menghargai alam sekitar. Prinsip kesepaduan dikekalkan dalam sukatan PSS sejajar dengan KBSR. Wujud kesepaduan yang merentasi matapelajaran lain seperti biologi,fizik dan kimia melalui penggunaan konsep dan proses sains. Pendekatan secara tema digunakan dalam mengolah isi kandungan .Pada tahap I sekolah rendah dalam Tahun 1, isi kandungan dibahagikan kepada dua bahagian: Bahagian A dan B . Pada Tahap II sekolah rendah, tema dibina mengenai manusia dan penerokaan persekitaran. Lima bidang penyiasatan adalah: 0 Alam Hidupan 1 Alam Fizikal 2 Alam Bahan 3 Bumi Dan Alam Semesta 4 Dunia Teknologi Persekitaran hidup menyiasat keperluan asas dan proses kehidupan manusia,binatang dan tumbuhan. Alam fizikal menyentuh konsep ruang dan masa dan fenomena tenaga. Alam bahan mem buat perbandingan antara bahan semulajadi dan bahan buatan manusia . unia dan alam semesta meneliti bumi dan hubungannya dengan matahari,bulan dan planet-planet lain dalam sistem solar. Akhirnya dunia teknologi, menyiasat perkembangan teknologi dalam bidang pertanian,komunikasi,pengangkutan dan pembinaan dan sumbangannya dalam kesejahteraan kehidupan manusia. Setiap bidang penerokaan adalah untuk mencapai kesepaduan dalaman secara melintang supaya apa yang dipelajari hari ini mampu dihubungkaitkan dengan apa yang dipelajari kelmarin dan apa yang akan dipelajari esok dan kesepaduan menegak supaya apa yang dipelajari dalam sesuatu bidang seharusnya berkait dengan bidang penerokaan yang lain.Satu ciri yang penting tentang sains adalah setiap murid seharusnya mencapai tahap minimum kefahaman dan pengalaman dalam setiap disiplin sains. (e) Strategi pengajaran Sukatan PSS merujuk kepada dua pandangan tentang pembelajaran sains. ; pandangan proses dan pandangan konstruktivis. Pandangan pro ses menyokong pendekatan inkuiri (Livermore, 1964). pandangan konstruktivis menyokong kenyataan bahawa murid mengambil bahagian secara aktif dan kreatif dalam membina ilmu kendiri berasaskan pengetahuan sedia ada mereka dari pengalaman yang lalu. (Duit dan Treagust, 1995; Harlen, 1992).Oleh yang demikian strategi pengajaran yang digunakan untuk pengajaran dan pembelajaran sains adalah pembelajaran secara penemuan di mana hasil pembelajaran adalah akiviti-aktiviti murid-murid dan bukan berpusatkan guru. Peranan guru hanya sebagai fasilitator,menyediakan pengalaman ‘hands-on’ menggalakkan murid bertanyakan soalan di mana jawapan akan di cari secara inkuiri tidak hanya menyampaikan ilmu. Guru membimbing murid untuk meneroka sendiri prinsip-prinsip dan konsep sains dengan mengguna idea sendiri untuk melakukan eksperimen,perbincangan,simulasi dan projek. PSS Syllabus Handbook, 1993, m. s. 9). (f)Bahan-Bahan Kurikulum ‘Curriculum materials are basic essentials of scient ific activity in the primary school’ (The International Encyclopaedia of Education, Vol. 9). (i)Tahap I sekolah rendah (Tahun 1,2 dan 3) Dalam PSS (Primary School Science ) Tahap 1 (diimplementasi pada Januari 2003 dalam bahasa Inggeris ),bahan-bahan kukrikulum adalah dalam bentuk pakej yang mengandungi buku panduan guru ,buku aktiviti untuk murid, huraian sukatan untuk guru dan CD-ROMs sebagai sokongan dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran.Guru-guru yang mengajar sains juga dibekalkan dengan komputer riba dan LCD untuk mengintegrasikan penggunaan teknologi ke dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran sains. (ii)Tahap II sekolah rendah ( Tahun 4,5 and 6) Dalam tahun 4, 5 dan 6 (diimplementasi pada Disember 1994 dalam Bahasa Inggeris), bahan-bahan kurikulum adalah dalam bentuk pakej yang mengandungi buku teks guru,buku teks murid, buku pukal bimbingan dan latihan (PULSAR) untuk guru yang mengandungi 12 modul. Guru juga menggunakan pelbagai buku teks komersial,buku kerja,carta dan bahan lu t sinar. g)Kumpulan sasaran PSS adalah wajib bagi semua murid-murid di sekolah rendah (h)Peruntukan masa Di sekolah rendah, matapelajaran sains diperuntukan 3 waktu seminggu selama 30 minit setiap waktu manakala di sekolah menengah diperuntukkan 5 waktu seminggu selama 30 minit setiap waktu. (i)Pentaksiran Prosedur Pentaksiran dalam KSSR terdiri dari dua bahagian: pentaksiran formatif dan pentaksiran sumatif. Murid-murid ditaksir pada tiga aspek sukatan pelajaran; pengetahuan,kemahiran,sikap dan nilai (KSSR Syllabus Handbook, 1993, m. s. 11- 12).Pentaksiran formatif adalah pentaksiran berasaskan sekolah dalam bentuk ujian bertulis,ujian amali,projek,portfolio, kerja lisan dan kerja kumpulan. Tujuan utama adalah untuk mengesan kelemahan murid dan memperkasakan pembelajaran. Pentaksiran sumatif biasanya terbahagi kepada dua iaitu pentaksiran kerja amali (PEKA) dan UPSR. PEKA adalah penilaian yang berterusan untuk mengukur sejauh mana murid-murid telah menguasai kemahiran proses sains dan kemahiran manipulatif sains (Guide to PEKA, 1997). Ianya telah di implementasi dalam tahun enam untuk tempoh enam bulan.Berdasarkan kepada penialaian berasaskan kriteria yang dibangunkan oleh Lembaga Peperiksaan Malaysia ,KPM, guru-guru merancang beberapa siri eksperimen untuk menilai murid di dalam bilik darjah. Instrumen penilaian adalah skala berkadar dan portfolio. Murid-murid dinilai pada lapan kemahiran proses; memerhati, membuat pengkelasan, mengukur dan menggunakan nombor, berkomunikasi, menggunakkan hubungan ruang-masa, mendefinisikan secara operasi, mengawal pembolehubah-pembolehubah dan menjalankan eksperimen.Mereka juga akan dinilai pada lima kemahiran manipulatif; mengguna dan mengendalikan bahan-bahan dan alat radas sains dengan betul, mengendalikan spesimen yang mati dan hidup dengan selamat, melukis specimen,bahan dan alat radas dengan tepat, membersihkan alat radas sains dengan betul, dan menyimpan bahan dan alatan sains denan baik dan selamat. Pentaksiran kepad a aptitud, sikap dan nilai juga dibina dalam item ujian PEKA. Pentaksiran lain adalah UPSR, di mana ianya merupakan suatu bentuk penilaian bertujuan untuk melihat sejauh mana sistem pendidikan menyediakan murid-murid untuk kurikulum sekolah menengah.Ianya adalah ujian bertulis yang mengandungi dua bahagian; bahagian A dan bahagian B. Bahagian A mengandungi tiga puluh soalan aneka pilihan dan bahagian B mengandungi lima soalan berstruktur. Peruntukan markah untuk bahagian A adalah 30 markah dan bahagian B adalah 20 markah. Penekanan diberikan kepada soalan-soalan dalam bahagian B yang menguji kebolehan murid-murid berfikir secara kritis dan kreatif. Untuk mendapat keputusan yang baik dalam peperiksaan sains, murid harus lulus pada Bahagian B. Yang menariknya markah yang dicapai dalam PEKA, tidak menyumbang terus kepada pencapaian keseluruhan markah dalam UPSR.Ini mungkin akan menjejaskan penyalahgunaan sistem dimana penilaian dalam PEKA tidak dijalankan secara serius oleh guru-guru k erana ianya bersifat terlalu subjektif. (Reference: Tan, J. N. (1999). The Development and Implementation of The Primary School Science Curriculum in Malaysia. Unpublished PhD thesis of the University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom. ) | Latihan| 1Tulis satu laporan perubahan dalam kurikulum sains sekolah rendah di Malaysia. 2. Nyatakan rasional perubahan dalam kurikulum sains sekolah rendah di Malaysia. 3.Lukis jadual untuk membuat pembandingan bagi setiap kurikulum sains sekolah rendah yang telah dilaksanakan di Malaysia, | Memikir| Kajian kurikulum sains sekolah rendah sekarang. Bincangkan dan tulis laporan sama ada kurikulum ini adalah adaptasi, pengubahsuaian atau pendekatan baru daripada kurikulum sebelumnya. Rujukan Tan, J. N. (1999). The Development and Implementation of The Primary School Science Curriculum in Malaysia. Unpublished PhD thesis of the University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom. Pusat Pembangunan Kurikulum (2002). Huraian Sukatan Pelajaran Sain s. Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia | Tamat Topik 2|TAJUK 3| Kurikulum Sains Pendidikan Rendah Malaysia I| SINOPSIS Topik ini mengkaji objektif, hasil pembelajaran, penekanan, organisasi kandungan dan skop Kurikulum Sains Pendidikan Rendah Malaysia . HASIL PEMBELAJARAN 1. Menerangkan penekanan Falsafah Pendidikan Sains Kebangsaan. 2. Menyatakan matlamat dan objektif kurikulum sains sekolah rendah KBSR 3. Membincangkan cabaran-cabaran yang terlibat dalam menggabungkan kurikulum sains sekolah rendah KBSR dalam pengajaran sains. 4. Menjelaskan organisasi isi kandungan dalam kurikulum sains sekolah rendah KBSR Kerangka Tajuk-tajukRajah 3. 0 Kerangka Tajuk ISI KANDUNGAN 3. 1Objektif Matlamat kurikulum sains sekolah rendah adalah untuk memupuk minat dan kreativiti murid melalui pengalaman dan siasatan setiap hari yang menggalakkan pemerolehan pengetahuan sains dan kemahiran berfikir disamping menerapkan sikap saintifik dan nilai-nilai murni. 3. 2Hasil Pembelajaran Peringkat satu Kurikulum S ains bertujuan : 1. Memupuk minat dan merangsang perasaan ingin tahu murid tentang dunia di sekeliling mereka. 2. Menyediakan murid dengan peluang-peluang untuk mengembangkan kemahiran proses sains dan kemahiran berfikir. . Membangunkan kreativiti murid. 4. Menyediakan murid dengan pengetahuan asas dan konsep sains 5. Menyemai sikap saintifik dan nilai-nilai positif. 6. Menyedari kepentingan memelihara dan menyayangi alam sekitar Peringkat dua Kurikulum Sains bertujuan : 1. Memupuk minat dan merangsang perasaan ingin tahu murid tentang dunia di sekeliling mereka. 2. Menyediakan murid dengan peluang-peluang untuk mengembangkan kemahiran proses sains dan kemahiran berfikir. 3. Membangunkan kreativiti murid. 4. Menyediakan murid dengan pengetahuan asas dan konsep sains 5.Menyediakan peluang pembelajaran untuk murid mengaplikasi pengetahuan dan kemahiran secara kreatif, kritikal dan analitikal bagi menyelesaikan masalah dan membuat keputusan. 6. Menyemai sikap saintifik dan nilai-nilai positif. 7. Menghargai sumbangan sains dan teknologi ke arah pembangunan negara dan kesejahteraan manusia. 8. Menyedari kepentingan memelihara dan menyayangi alam sekitar 3. 3Penekanan Sains menekankan penyiasatan dan penyelesaikan masalah. Dalam penyiasatan dan proses penyelesaian masalah, kemahiran dan pemikiran saintifik digunakan.Kemahiran saintifik penting dalam mana-mana penyiasatan saintifik seperti menjalankan eksperimen dan projek. Kemahiran saintifik terdiri daripada kemahiran proses sains dan kemahiran manipulasi Berfikir merupakan satu proses mental yang memerlukan seseorang individu mengintegrasikan pengetahuan, kemahiran dan sikap dalam usaha memahami alam sekitar. Salah satu objektif sistem pendidikan negara adalah untuk meningkatkan keupayaan berfikir murid-murid. Objektif ini boleh dicapai melalui kurikulum yang menekankan pembelajaran berfikrah. Pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang menekankan kemahiran berfikir adalah asas untuk pembelajaran berfikrah.Pembelajaran berf ikrah dapat dicapai sekiranya murid terlibat secara aktif dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Aktiviti perlu dirancang untuk memberi peluang kepada murid menggunakan kemahiran berfikir dalam pengkonseptualan, menyelesaikan masalah dan membuat keputusan. Kemahiran berfikir boleh dikategorikan kepada kemahiran pemikiran kritis dan kreatif. Seseorang yang berfikir secara kritis sentiasa menilai sesuatu idea secara sistematik sebelum menerimanya. Seseorang yang berfikir secara kreatif mempunyai tahap imaginasi yang tinggi, mampu untuk menjana idea-idea asal dan inovatif, dan mengubah suai idea dan produk.Strategi pemikiran adalah kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi yang melibatkan pelbagai langkah. Setiap langkah melibatkan pelbagai kemahiran berfikir kritis dan kreatif. Keupayaan untuk merangka strategi pemikiran adalah bermatlamat untuk memperkenalkan aktiviti-aktiviti berfikir dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran . Pengalaman pembelajaran sains boleh digunakan sebagai satu cara untuk m enyemai sikap saintifik dan nilai-nilai murni dalam diri pelajar. Penerapan sikap saintifik dan nilai-nilai murni secara amnya berlaku melalui perkara berikut * Menyedari kepentingan dan keperluan sikap saintifik dan nilai-nilai murni. Memberi penekanan kepada sikap dan nilai-nilai ini. * Mengamal dan menghayati sikap saintifik dan nilai-nilai murni Apabila merancang aktiviti pengajaran dan pembelajaran, guru perlu memberi pertimbangan yang sewajarnya kepada perkara di atas bagi memastikan penerapan sikap dan nilai saintifik yang berterusan . 3. 4Organisasi Kandungan Kurikulum sains dianjurkan secara bertema. Setiap tema terdiri daripada pelbagai bidang pembelajaran, setiap satunya terdiri daripada beberapa objektif pembelajaran. Objektif pembelajaran mempunyai satu atau lebih hasil pembelajaran.Hasil pembelajaran ditulis dengan menyatakan hasil tingkah laku yang boleh diukur, kriteria dan situasi. Secara umum, hasil pembelajaran bagi setiap objektif pembelajaran dinyatakan tahap ke sukarannya. Walau bagaimanapun, dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran, aktiviti-aktiviti pembelajaran harus dirancang dengan cara yang holistik dan bersepadu yang membolehkan pencapaian hasil pembelajaran yang pelbagai mengikut keperluan dan konteks tertentu. Guru seharusnya mengelak daripada menggunakan strategi pengajaran yang mengasingkan setiap hasil pembelajaran yang dinyatakan di dalam Spesifikasi Kurikulum.Cadangan Aktiviti Pembelajaran memberi maklumat tentang skop dan dimensi hasil pembelajaran. Aktiviti-aktiviti pembelajaran yang dinyatakan di bawah lajur Cadangan Aktiviti Pembelajaran diberi dengan tujuan untuk menyediakan beberapa panduan tentang bagaimana hasil pembelajaran boleh dicapai. Aktiviti yang dicadangkan boleh meliputi satu atau lebih hasil pembelajaran. Guru boleh mengubahsuai cadangan aktiviti yang sesuai dengan kebolehan dan gaya pembelajaran murid-murid mereka. Guru juga digalakkan mereka bentuk aktiviti pembelajaran yang inovatif dan berkesan untuk men ingkatkan pembelajaran sains . | Latihan|Jawab soalan-soalan berikut. (Rujuk Kurikulum Spesifikasi Sains Rendah. ) Kurikulum Sains Pendidikan Rendah Malaysia I 1. Berikan dua dokumen penting yang mesti dirujuk oleh guru bagi memahami Kurikulum Sains Rendah. Apakah tujuan utama setiap dokumen tersebut? 2. Kurikulum Sains Rendah digubal selaras dengan Falsafah Pendidikan Kebangsaan (FPK). Nyatakan empat elemen penting yang ditekankan dalam FPK 3. Nyatakan matlamat Kurikulum Sains Rendah. Bagaimana matlamat ini selaras dengan aspirasi FPK? 4. Senarai semua objektif Kurikulum Sains Rendah. Apakah perbezaan di antara objektif kurtikulum Tahap I dan Tahap II? . Berikan tiga penekanan utama / unsur-unsur Kurikulum Sains Rendah. Bincangkan cabaran-cabaran dalam menggabungkan penekanan ini ke dalam pelajaran. 6. Senaraikan kemahiran dan nilai-nilai kurikulum yang diharap untuk dibangunkan. Mengapa kemahiran dan nilai-nilai tersebut penting? 7Dengan menggunakan pengurusan grafik yang sesuai, tunjukkan bagaimana kandungan kurikulum sains yang anda pilih dapat dibina. 8. Kurikulum Sains Sekolah dibina berdasarkan tema-tema tertentu. Tuliskan tema-tema tersebut untuk Tahap I dan Tahap II 9. Setiap Tema dalam kandungan kurikulum terdiri daripada pelbagai Bidang Pembelajaran.Bina Jadual Bidang Pembelajaran mengikut tema-tema yang sesuai bagi Tahun 1 hingga 6. Apakah yang dapat anda simpulkan tentang susunan bidang-bidang pembelajaran tersebut? Tema| Tahun 1| Tahun 2| Tahun 3| Tahun 4| Tahun 5| Tahun 6| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 10. Dalam Spesifikasi Kurikulum, organisasi kandungan ditunjukkan dengan menggunakan 5 lajur. Nama dan terangkan setiap tajuk lajur tersebut. 11. Kurikulum Sains Rendah mengintegrasikan pengetahuan, kemahiran dan nilai-nilai dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran sains.Dengan memberikan contoh-contoh yang sesuai tunjukkan bagaimana seorang guru dapat mengintegrasikan ketiga-tiga elemen tersebut dala m pelajaran sains. 12. Cadangkan strategi pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang sesuai untuk kurikulum sains sekolah rendah. Berikan penerangan ringkas tentang setiap strategi tersebut. 13. Apakah tiga aspek yang dinilai dalam kurikulum sains sekolah rendah dan bagaimanakah aspek tersebut dinilai? | Bahan Bacaan dan Internet | Banding bezakan Kurikulum Sains Sekolah Rendah di Malaysia dan New Zealand dari segi objektif, penekanan dan skop. (New Zealand Primary Science Curriculum: ttp://www. tki. org. nz/r/science/curriculum/toc_e. php ) Rujukan Pusat Pembangunan Kurikulum (2002). Huraian Sukatan Pelajaran Sains. Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia Ministry of Education, Wellington, New Zealand (2002). Science in the New Zealand Curriculum. Retrieved on 10 Sept. 2009 from: http://www. tki. org. nz/r/science/curriculum/toc_e. php | Tamat Topik 3| TAJUK 4| Kurikulum Sains Pendidikan Rendah Malaysia II | SINOPSIS Topik ini membincangkan amalan-amalan yang baik dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran sa ins. Ia merangkumi pelbagai strategi, aktiviti-aktiviti pembelajaran dan prosedur pentaksiran.HASIL PEMBELAJARAN 1. Mengenalpasti masalah-masalah dalam pembelajaran sains 2. Menghuraikan pelbagai strategi, aktiviti dan pentaksiran yang boleh di implementasi dalam pembelajaran sains.. KERANGKA TAJUK Rajah 4. 0 Kerangka Tajuk ISI KANDUNGAN 4. 1Strategi Pengajaran dan pembelajaran Strategi pengajaran dan pembelajaran dalam kurikulum sains menekankan kepada pembelajaran berfikrah. Pembelajaran berfikrah adalah suatu proses yang boleh membantu murid-murid menguasai ilmu pengetahuan dan kemahiran yang akan membantu mereka untuk membangun pemikiran ketahap optimum.Pembelajaran sains berfikrar boleh dicapai melalui pendekatan yang pelbagai seperti inkuiri, konstruktivisme, pembelajaran kontektual dan pembelajaran masteri. Oleh yang demikian aktiviti pembelajaran perlu dirancangkan kepada merangsang pemikiran kraeatif dan kritis murid-murid dan tidak hanya tertumpu kepada pembelajaran secara rutin atau kebiasaan. Murid-murid harus menyedari tentang kemahiran berfikir dan strategi berfikir yang mereka gunakan dalam pembelajaran . Mereka harus di cabar dengan masalah dan soalan-soalan aras tinggi untuk menyelesaikan masalah yang memerlukan kepada penyelesaian masalah.Proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran seharusnya dapat membolehkan murid-murid menguasai ilmu pengetahuan, kemahiran dan memperkembangkan sikap saintifik dan nilai murni secara bersepadu 4. 2Aktiviti Pembelajaran Kepelbagaian kaedah pengajaran dan pembelajaran mampu meningkatkan minat murid-murid dalam pembelajaran sains. Kelas sains yang tidak menarik akan menjejaskan motivasi murid untuk belajar sains dan ini akan mempengaruhi pencapaian mereka. Pemilihan kaedah pengajaran perlu memenuhi kehendak kurikulum, kebolehan murid, kecerdasan pelbagai murid, dan kemudahan sumber pengajaran dan pembelajaran dan infrastruktur.Aktiviti-aktiviti yang pelbagai harus dirancang untuk murid-murid yang mempunyai gaya pembelaj aran dan kecerdasan yang berbeza-beza. Berikut adalah penjelasan ringkas tentang kaedah pengajaran dan pembelajaran. 4. 2. 1Eksperimen Eksperimen adalah kaedah yang biasa digunakan dalam kelas sains. Semasa melaksanakan eksperimen murid-murid menguji hipotesis melalui penyiasatan untuk menemukan konsep dan prinsip sains. Semasa menjalankan eksperimen, murid-murid menggunakan kemahiran berfikir, kemahiran saintifik dan kemahiran manipulatif.Aktiviti eksperimen boleh dilaksanakan secara bimbingan guru,atau guru memberi peluang jika bersesuaian kepada murid-murid untuk merekabentuk eksperimen mereka sendiri. Ini melibatkan murid-murid merancang eksperimen, bagaimana membuat pengukuran dan menganalisis data dan pembentangan hasil eksperimen mereka. 4. 2. 2Perbincangan Perbincangan adalah suatu aktiviti dimana murid-murid bertukar-tukar soalan dan pandangan berdasarkan alasan yang jelas. Perbincangan boleh dijalankan sebelum, semasa atau selepas sesuatu aktiviti.Guru memainkan peranan se bagai fasilitator dan memimpin perbincangan untuk merangsang pemikiran dan menggalakkan murid-murid supaya menyatakan pendapat atau pandangan mereka. 4. 2. 3Simulasi Dalam simulasi, aktiviti yang dijalankan menyerupai situasi atau keadaan sebenar. Contoh aktiviti-aktiviti simulasi adalah main peranan , permainan dan penggunaan model. Di dalam aktiviti main peranan murid-murid memainkan peranan yang tertentu berdasarkan syarat-syarat yang diberikan. Permainan memerlukan prosedur yang harus diikuti.Semasa akativiti permainan murid-murid belajar prinsip-prinsip yang spesifik atau memahami proses untuk membuat sesuatu keputusan. Model digunakan untuk mewakili objek-objek atau situasi sebenar supaya murid-murid dapat membuat gambaran mental dan memahami konsep dan prinsip sains yang hendak dipelajari. 4. 2. 4Projek Projek adalah suatu aktiviti pembelajaran yang dilakukan oleh individu atau kumpulan untuk mencapai objektif pembelajaran yang khusus. Projek memerlukan beberapa sesi pengajar an untuk diselesaikan . Hasil projek boleh berbentuk laporan, artifak,atau dalam bentuk persembahan yang akan dibentangkan oleh murid-murid atau guru.Kerja projek menggalakkan perkembangan kemahiran menyelesaikan masalah, pengurusan masa dan pembelajaran individu secara bebas . 4. 2. 5Lawatan dan penggunaan sumber luaran Pembelajaran sains tidak hanya terhad kepada aktiviti-aktiviti yang dijalankan dalam kawasan sekolah sahaja. Pembelajaran sains boleh dikembangkan lagi melalui penggunaan sumber luaran saperti zoo,muzium,pusat-pusat sains,institusi-institusi penyelidikan kawasan paya bakau dan kilang-kilang. Lawatan ke tempat-tempat berikut akan menjadikan pembelajaran sains itu lebih menarik. bermakna dan berkesan. Untuk mengoptimumkan pembelajaran lawatan perlu dirancang dengan teliti.Murid-murid perlu dilibatkan dalam membuat perancangan dan tugasan yang spesifik perlu ditetapkan sebelum lawatan. Lawatan pembelajaran ini tidak akan lengkap tanpa pos-perbincangan selepas lawatan. 4. 2. 6Penggunaan Teknologi Tekno